Travel

Velkei Sarolta

Életrajz

A 85 éves Velkei Sarolta asszony Munkácson él egy háromszobás bérházban az egyik fiával és annak családjával. A fiai autószerelők, saját műhelyük van. A menye orosz származású, így a magyar helyett inkább az orosz szó a domináns. A néni egy éve teljesen megvakult, és emiatt nagyon rossz kedélyállapotban van. A visszaemlékezése elég hézagos, szétszórt, és többször előfordult az is, hogy ugyanarról az eseményről más és más módon számolt be. Beszélgetésünk során többször is elmondta, hogy a halált tekintettel a jelenlegi állapotára már megváltásnak tekintené.

Apai nagymamám, Jakubovics Hani Vásárosnaményban született, Magyarországon. Az első világháború előtt vagy alatt jött Munkácsra, ide ment férjhez. Vásárosnaményben ismerkedtek meg nagypapával. A nagypapát Jakubovics Ignácnak hívták. Nem ismertem, nem élt ő már akkor. Nagymamámat csak később ismertem meg, mert Kiskunhalason, Magyarországon élt. A nagymama ott dolgozott valamilyen gyárban, nem tudom pontosan, mert nem kérdeztem tőle. Mikor visszajött, nemsokára el is vitték. Nagymamám magyarosan járt, nem olyan volt, mint egy zsidó asszony [lásd: haszid öltözék], hanem mint egy igazi magyar asszony. Nem hordott a családban senki parókát, neki sem volt. Kendőben járt, úgy, mint egy parasztasszony. Nem voltak olyan vallásosak. Nagymama rendes, jóravaló magyar néni volt. Nem is beszélt semmi más nyelven, csak magyarul. Lehet, hogy maguk közt zsidó nyelven [azaz jiddisül] is beszéltek, de velünk nem. Hani néni, úgy hívták a szomszédok a zsidó nevén.

Gottesmann Ferencnek hívták az anyai nagyapámat, őt jól ismertem. Munkácson élt, szobafestő volt. Megrendelték nála a munkát, de ő nem dolgozott, ő csak főnök volt. A nagyapámnál tanulták ki a festőszakmát a magyarok, ruténok. Kábé tíz ember dolgozott nála. Az én apám is köztük volt mint festőinas. Nem nagyon akart az anyám hozzámenni, pedig jó ember volt. Valahogy nem imponált neki, de aztán a nagyapa mégis rávette őt. Próbáld meg vele, hát megpróbálta, és hála Istennek jól jött ki. A nagyapám magyar embernek tartotta magát, nem úgy járt, mint egy vallásos zsidó. Nem is volt nagyon vallásos. Betartotta a vallást, de nem úgy, hogy verte a fejét a falba. Nem volt szakálla, pajesza. Modern ember volt, mesterember. Minden péntek este meggyújtotta a gyertyát és a bor felett imádkozott. Péntek este olyan tízen is összegyűltünk az asztalnál, rokonok, ismerősök. Az anyuka testvérei is eljöttek, a Samu és a Herman. Szombatonként kijárt a Zsarnó-hegyre, itt Munkács közelében, ott volt egy fürdő a fenyőerdőben. Tulajdonképpen az egy kis ház volt, ahol fenyőfa-hulladékokkal melegítették a gyógyvizet. Ott nem volt szabad bárkinek fürödni, mert gyógyfürdő volt, de mivel voltak ismeretségei ott, neki megengedték. Nem mehetett oda akárki, csak akit berendeltek. Ő mindig ment, minden szombaton. Az anyai nagymamám lánykori neve Brájer Sári volt. Korán meghalt, szülés közben, így nem ismertem. Nagyapa kábé ötvenéves korában újból megnősült. Nagyon jó aszony volt a második felesége, azt hiszem, hogy Helénnek hívták.

Nagyapa szintén a Zrínyi utcában lakott, velünk szemben az ötvenes szám alatt. Kis háza volt, csak két szoba és konyha, régimódi bútorral. Emlékszem a bútor barna volt. Szép volt, olyan régimódi. Elöl volt a hálószoba és a másikban pedig a nappali. Úgy rendezték be maguknak, mert már akkor is olyan volt a helyzet, elvettek lakásokat. Az apai nagyapát szintén elvitték a lágerbe. Akkor láttam utoljára. Először őt deportálták, egy hétre rá minket is. Őt vitték megölni, minket munkára.

Jakubovics Izidornak hívták az apám, Munkácson született 1900 körül. Apámnak két testvére volt - Jakubovics Szerénke és Jakubovics Lajos. Lajos fiatalabb volt apámnál, de sajnos beteg volt, invalidus. Fiatalkorában munkabalesetet szenvedett, megsérült a keze. Egy kézzel is dolgozott olyan helyen, ahol tudott, azt hiszem, hogy a vágóhídon. Szerénke férjét Hartmann Izidornak hívták, lengyel volt. Egy szállítócégnél dolgozott mint fuvaros. Egy fiuk és egy lányuk született. A fiút Zolinak hívták és a lányt Margitkának.

Az anyám, Gottesman Mária munkácsi származású volt. Ő is 1900 körül született. Azt tudom, hogy a szüleim egyidősek voltak. Anyukámnak két testvére volt, akik elmentek Amerikába. A másik két testvére, Gottesman Samu és Gottesman Lenke Munkácson lakott. Lenke fiatalabb volt anyukámnál, itt lakott egész életében, míg el nem vitték a lágerbe. Lenkének nem volt családja, nem is ment férjhez, a nagypapával lakott. Mint fehérnemű-varrónő dolgozott. Samu nős volt, a feleségét azt hiszem, hogy Lenkének hívták. Két gyermekük született. Samu festőnek tanult ki a nagypapánál, de villanyszerelő munkát is végzett. Mikor mi adódott. Samut és a családját szintén elvitték a lágerbe, senki nem jött vissza.

Anyámnak volt még egy öccse, Gottesman Herman, aki perfekt beszélt németül és kitanult mérnök volt. Brünnben tanult [lásd: egyetemi tanulmányok és a numerus clausus], Csehországban [Brünn az első világháború után az Első Csehszlovák Köztársasághoz tartozott, és ide került egyébként Kárpátalja és így Munkács is. – A szerk.]. Ott inkább németül beszéltek. Ott is dolgozott, rádiószerelő volt. Egy német nőt vett feleségül, Munkácson éltek. A német nő itt dolgozott Munkácson mint kalaposnő. Saját kalapszalonja volt. De sajnos Hermant megölték a lágerben, nem jött vissza. Amikor már lehetett volna jönni, akkor már halott volt. Állítólag napközben kint álltak az udvaron és egy bomba beesett az udvarba, és megölte. A zsidók mondták, akik hazajöttek. A felesége itt tartózkodott Munkácson a háború alatt. A háború után is egy darabig itt lakott, de utána elment Csehországba Csehszlovákiába. Többé már nem is találkoztunk, csak egyszer a fia, Jindra eljött hozzánk. Jindriškának hívták, cseh neve volt. Nem mondta a fiú, hogy hogyan élnek, nem is kérdeztem. Egy barátját jött meglátogatni, nem is tudta, hogy élek. Azok mondták neki, akiknél lakott, hogy itt él egy nénid. Az anyukámnak volt még egy féltestvére. Mermelnstein Cecíliának hívták. A nagypapa második házasságából született Cecília. Sokkal fiatalabb volt az anyukámtól.

1919-ben házasodtak össze a szüleim itt, Munkácson. Zsidó esküvő volt, hipe alatt, a hitközség épületében tartották meg a lakodalmat. Szép esküvő volt, ahogy mesélte a nagyapám. Elmesélte, hogy mi volt, hogy anyunak milyen volt a ruhája. A szüleim nagyon szépen éltek. Ha mindenki úgy élne, mint ők éltek! Nem volt soha semmi vita, veszekedés. Igazán nagyon megértették egymást. Istenem, milyen az élet?! Megölték őket!

Az apám szobafestő volt. Ha szezon volt, akkor keresett. Nagyon jó ember volt. Amit keresett, hazaadta. Néha volt valami eldugva a zsebébe, azt az anyám mindig megtalálta, tíz rubelt, öt rubelt. Meghagyta neki, hogy legyen. Hát ilyen jó asszony volt volt a mamám. Inkább az anyuka volt otthon a főnök.

Apám magyar ember volt, csak magyarul beszélt. Úgy járt, amikor felöltözött, mint egy úriember. Modern ember volt, és nem tartotta nagyon a vallást. Ő csak dolgozott, és kész. Az én apám nem tudta, hogy ez zsidó, ez keresztény, hogy különbség van köztük. Ő nem tett különbséget. Mint szobafestő mindenféle emberrel dolgozott. Soha senkit nem bántott meg. Szeretett mindenkit, aki csak valamirevaló ember volt.

Apám szeretett szivarozni, nem is szívott mást, cigarettát sem, csak szivart. Az én anyám lánykorában dohánygyárban dolgozott, így tudott szivarokat csinálni. Még otthon is maga csinálta az apu szivarját. Az volt a legjobb. 35 kopejkába került egy kis szivarkába a dohány. Vasárnap apám elment a szőlőbe, megivott egy liter bort, mint régen a férfiak. Több szőlős is volt, ahol árultak bort. A szőlők Munkács szélén, a hegyeken voltak. Elmentek oda egy barátjával, leültek, szívesen látták egymást, mert az embernek egyedül nem akaródzik inni. Nekünk is volt szőlőnk. Bort is csináltunk, nem sokat. Az apu kósernek csinálta, amennnyire lehetett. Nem árultuk, csak magunknak. A barátjával hol náluk, hol nálunk tartózkodtak. Anyukának volt pár barátnője a dohánygyárból és oda járt. Azok voltak az ismerősök.

A családban öt lány volt. Apámnak, anyámnak öt lánya volt, nem sikerült egy fiú se. Azt mondtam mindig az anyámnak: „Csak azért van mindig lánygyerek, hogy az apámnak ne legyen, aki eltemesse.” Én vagyok a legidősebb, 1920-ban születtem Munkácson. Etelka volt utánam, 1922-ben született. Rella 1924-ben, Ibolya 1926-ban született. Rivke talán 1930-ban született. Nem akarták már őt, de véletlenül sikerült. Engem a családban úgy hívtak zsidóul, hogy Sure Fájfele. A nagyapám mindig úgy nevezett, hogy Síró Sári madárka, mert én mindig sírtam. Az anyám pedig így mondogatta: „Ej Síró Sári madárka, hagyj békén!”

Munkácson a Zrínyi utcában laktunk, az utca végén. Csehül Horotka utcának hívták, mert akkor csehek voltak [lásd: Első Csehszlovák Köztársaság]. Szép utca volt. Vegyesen laktak ott zsidók és nem zsidók. Mellettünk lakott egy tanítónő. Kertes házban laktunk, szép, utcai ház volt. Nem voltunk gazdagok, inkább szegény embereknek tartottak minket. Két szoba és konyha volt a házban. Emlékszem, hogy egy épített kályhával fűtöttek a szobákban, kívül volt az ajtaja [Feltehetően cserépkályhára gondol az interjúalany. – A szerk.]. Mi gyerekek külön aludtunk, nem a szülőkkel. A ház mellett kert is volt, de csak apróságokat termeltünk. Ketrecben tartottunk libát, tyúkot, mindig sokat, ezeket elvittük a metszőhöz. A libát, tyúkot nem volt szabad leforrázni, csak hidegen szaggattuk a tollat, de előfordult, hogy rosszul jött ki, nem akart pucolódni. Akkor az anyám hozzátett egy vasalót, és úgy pucoltuk, úgy könnyebben ment. A tollat mindig félretettük – az anyámnak öt lánya volt és készítette a hozományt.

Sok könyv és újság volt otthon. Az anyámnak is járt valami újság és az apukámnak is. Csak magyar volt, mert másképp nem tudtak. Zsidóul csak az anyukám tudott. Városban külön újság járt a zsidóknak. A héber iskola adott ki újságot. [Az interjúalany minden bizonnyal a két világháború között a városban működő héber gimnáziumra gondol. – A szerk.] A nevét már elfelejtettem.

Anyukám háztartásbeli volt. A dohánygyárba járt dolgozni, amíg nem ment férjhez. Amikor férjhez ment, az apám nem engedte dolgozni. Volt egy szolgálónk is. Nem lakott nálunk, csak bejárt. Mindenben segített, hogy az anyámnak könnyebb dolga legyen. Takarított, mosott, és persze ránk gyerekekre is vigyázott. Főzni nem főzött, csak az anyuka. Ő egyedül. A háztartásunk kóser volt. Külön edényt használtunk húsra és tejesre. A tejest a kredencben, a húsost egy bezárt szekrényben tároltuk. Soha nem történt meg, hogy összekeverték volna. Külön volt elrakva az élelmiszer is, külön a tejes és a zsíros. A tejes után azt hiszem lehetett enni húsosat [lásd: húsos étel – tejes étel]. De ha húst ettünk ebédre, vacsorára már nem igen ettünk tejeset. Reggelire ehettünk. Anyukám mindenfélét főzött: húsleveseket, leveseket, sült húsokat. Nagyon jó gazdasszony volt. Mindent nagyon jól megcsinált. Olcsón, de kiadósan és ízletesen főzött az anyukám. A fals ételeket is nagyon jól megfőzte. Ha csinált egy [fals] csibelevest, az olyan volt, mint [az igazi]. Sajnos már nem emlékszem anyuka receptjeire, már régen volt.

A tyúkot és a libát a sakterhoz vittük. Egy sakter volt, a nevére nem emlékszem. Mindig csütörtökön vágtak a metszőházban. Anyám csak jó libát vágatott a metszővel. Apám egyáltalán nem volt vallásos. Az anyám hitt, de az apám meg nem hitt a kóserságban. Ő már nem is tartotta úgy a vallást. A szülei még igen, de az apu és a testvérei már nem annyira. „Én magam levágnám!” – mondta apám. Azt mondja anyu: „Nem, fiam, inkább megfizetem azt a vágást.” Akkor még a Zsidó utcában volt egy metszőház. Mindenki oda hordta levágni a magáét, megvárták, amíg felakasztották a baromfit ott, és lefolyt a vér, csak akkor vitték haza. Én is jártam a metszőhöz. Anyám mindig megkérdezte: „Sára, nem vitted el csak úgy levágni?” Mert nekem olyan barátnőim is voltak, hogy gondolta anyám, hogy én biztos be fogom csapni. „Nem, anyu, ez kóser, ha te így hiszel benne, akkor én is hiszek!” „Hát hiszek, mert az Isten úgy tanított minket.” Tényleg elvittem, mert nem csaptam be az anyámat soha. Volt ott egy cselédlány, és azzal is mentem ki.

Előfordult, hogy felvágtuk a libát, és meg is néztük a belét vagy a hólyagot, hogy nincs-e valami rajta. Ha valami baja volt, akkor megnézettük a rabbial. Mindig el kellett vinni, ha valamit észrevettek, hogy baja van. Ő megvizsgálta a bélt, a hólyagot. Ő megkaparta kétszer, és ha szépen lejött, akkor semmi nem volt. Ha kilyukadt, nem ettük meg. De ha kilyukadt, nem volt szabad megenni azt a libát, akkor nem volt kóser. Akkor odaadták valakinek, szegény embernek.

Munkácson a Vásártéren minden héten vásárt tartottak. Mikor mit szoktunk ott venni, de főleg zöldséget, meg ami kellett. A bolgárok paprikát, paradicsomot árultak, egy egész kertészetük volt. Több üzlet létezett a városban, de egybe jártunk mindig. Ez az orvos fiának, a Bernsteinnek az üzlete volt. Legtöbbször ott vettünk ún. törmelék kávét, mert ízletes és sokkal olcsóbb volt. Úgyis megdaráltuk, hát mire kell, hogy szemes legyen? Nem fontos. Mindennap reggelire tejeskávét ittunk és délután pedig szemes kávét kaptunk. Ez volt a divat. Cukrot is tettünk bele, nem sokat, de azért tettünk bele. Sábeszkor is reggelire tejeskávét ittunk.

Gyermekkoromban Munkács szép város volt, én úgy tudom, hogy egyike a legszebb városoknak. Sok zsidó lakott Munkácson akkoriban. A lakosság fele biztos zsidó volt, és volt vagy 70 ezer lakos, vagy 80 ezer [Munkács lakossága 1920 körül alig több, mint 16 000 fő volt. – A szerk.] A zsidók java része iparos volt. A zsidók kereskedéssel is foglalkoztak, de a mi fajtánk nem, az csak dolgozott. Szakmák voltak. Sok villanyszerelő is akadt közöttük. Élt itt néhány jómódú zsidó család is. Pl. a Krauék, ők üzletemberek voltak. Élt itt egy olyan ember is, akit úgy neveztek, hogy gyújtogató. Felgyújtotta a házakat, ha megfizették érte. Ez arra volt jó, hogy a felgyújtott házakért megkapták a biztosítást. Nagy értékek voltak a biztosítók.

Egy hitközség volt [A munkácsi hitközség az ortodox irányzathoz tartozott, a munkácsi zsidók többsége szigorúan hagyományőrző volt. A városban jesiva, Talmud-Tóra iskola és egylet működött. – A szerk.]. A háború előtt egy nagy zsinagóga és sok kicsi imaház volt. A zsinagóga a főtéren áll, ott volt a zsidó fürdő mikve is. Az most egy áruház, elvették és áruházat csináltak belőle. Inkább neológok voltak az emberek. Ortodoxok, olyan nagyon vallásosak, akik akkor srámliba jártak [lásd: haszid öltözék], kevesen voltak. Ismertünk ilyeneket is, de amikor elvitték őket a lágerbe, kihaltak vagy elmentek innen Palesztinába.

Azt hiszem, vagy három rabbi is élt itt. Emlékszem a Spira rabbira [lásd: Spira Lázár], a többiekre nem. Ő egy finom, intelligens, tanult ember volt. Spirához sokan bejártak orvosságért, én nem jártam be, de tudtam, hogy adott orvosságokat, és gyógyított embereket. Sőt, keresztény emberek is jártak hozzá, nagyon okos ember volt. Jártak hozzá a falusi emberek, hogy gyógyítsa meg őket, és meg is gyógyította őket. Egy tudós volt. Én láttam őt, akkor már öreg bácsi volt. Ott voltam nála, nem bent nála, hanem az udvaron, ahol rabbiskodott. [A haszid rebbéknek „udvaruk” volt, ahova ahova a híveik – akár igen messziről is – rendszeresen elutaztak, főleg a nagyobb zsidó ünnepeken. A hívek általában a ház körüli udvaron várakoztak, amíg a rebbe színe elé nem jutottak. – A szerk.]

A zsidók egymás közt zsidóul jiddisül beszéltek, de mi csak csak magyarul, az utcán pedig zsidóul. A város vezetőségében inkább magyarok voltak, mint csehek. A háború előtt a városban kevés ukrán élt. A háború után itt maradtak. Régen, amikor a korzón végigmentem, akkor nem lehetett hallani egyebet, csak magyart, de most már ezek a jöttmentek vannak. Az életem nagyon keserű, én már nem tudom ezt megszokni.

Sok sádhen is volt. Jöttek mindig partikat ajánlani. A sadchenok java része férfi volt. Az anyám nem akarta, hogy hozzánk is járjanak, úgy zavarta ki őket. Mindig mondta nekik: „Ha talál férjet, akkor férjhez megy, ha nem, akkor megmarad vénlánynak!” A snorrerokra is emlékszem. Csak a háború előtt jártak. Egyik jött ekkor, a másik jött amakkor. Ha délben jött a snorrer, leültettük ebédre, de csak akkor, ha zsidó volt. Volt otthon egy külön pörsöly, ami a snorreroknak volt elkészítve. A kredenc fölött állt, és az anyám mindig beletett nekik pénzt. Nem voltak ők nagyon szegények, Lingárok [Itt: naplopó, mihaszna. – A szerk.] voltak. A snorrerok annyi pénzt kaptak, hogy volt miből élniük. A templomban is adakoztak nekik, ott volt a buksza és mindenki adott bele. Egy magyar bácsi is jött hozzánl, ő mindig egy rubelt kapott [A két világháború között Csehszlovákiában korona volt. – A szerk.]. „Mondom – hát én kölyök voltam akkor –, minek magának az a pénz?” Ő meg mondja: „Hát mindenkinek kell adni!” „Miért mi adjunk?” „Azért, mert én is szegény vagyok.” „A rubelt kibírjuk, de nem hiszem, hogy azért jár magának.” „Ha nem tetszik adni, akkor tessék elvenni”. „Dehogynem, odaadom én magának!” Én adtam rubelt mindenkinek.

Munkácson a temetésnél a férfiak és a nők külön álltak. A sírokhoz először csak a férfiak mentek, utánuk kimehettünk mi is, az asszonyok. A halottat kivitték és eltemették, csak utána mehettünk mi, nők is oda. A temetés után süvét ültünk otthon. Mindent a szomszédok csináltak. Nyolc napig csak ültünk, néha felálltunk, mert azért ki kellett menni a levegőre is. Be volt vágva a ruhánk, azt hiszem, hogy itt valahol a mellkasára mutat. [A hozzátartozó halálakor a vallásos zsidók fent a nyak-mellkas környékén bevágják a ruhájukat. Régen megszaggatták a gyászolók a ruhájukat, de később bevágták, nyilván finoman, hogy utána össze tudják varrni, és használni tudják még. – A szerk.] Sábesznapkor nem emlékszem, hogy ültek-e [süvet].

Régen nagyon vallásosak voltak erre az emberek. De mi nem olyanok voltunk, csak az ünnepeket tartottuk. Az apám nem volt túl vallásos zsidó, nem járt úgy imádkozni minden nap. Elment egyszer egy héten. De azért minden reggel imádkozott. Tfilint is kötött. Sőt volt egy nagybácsim Gottesman Samu, aki állandóan körülkötötte magát a tfilinnel, én meg mindig nevettem. Mondtam neki: „Kevesebbet imádkozz és kevesebbet prédikálj”. Így veszekedtünk vele. Mindig azt mondta, hogy ne menjetek ide, ne menjetek oda. Szombaton a szülők templomba jártak. Mi gyerekek az udvaron maradtunk és vártuk az apukát, anyukát, hogy mikor jönnek ki. Apám bejárt, imádkozott, de úgy fából. Mondtam neki: „Apám, minek megy oda, mikor úgyis tudom, hogy nem vallásos?” Különben is, a kommunista pártba járt, nem lehetett vallásos. De ő szeretett menni, hogy őt is lássák a templomban. Mi megszoktuk, hogy az apu ilyen és kész. Anyu hitt abban, hogy kell tartani a vallást. Mondta neki az anyám: „Hallgass ide, lehet kommunista valaki, de azért lehet Istenhívő is!”

A szüleim minden héten eljártak mikvébe. [Az interjúalany feltehetően nem jól emlékszik, az asszonyok ugyanis csak havonta egyszer mentek mikvébe. A férfiak mehettek minden héten. – A szerk.] Egy mikve volt a Zsidó utcában, még ma is ott van. Az épületben külön szobák voltak. Először megmosakodtak egy kádban és utána mehettek csak le a mikvébe. Lementek mindig oda az asszonyok a menstruáció után. Hiába volt fürdőszoba, akkor is elmentek. Az anyuka minket is hordott magával. A holmijait mindig én vittem. Együtt mentünk és azt énekeltük jiddisül, hogy „a fürdőjegyet megveszem neked, mert anélkül nem tudok élni”, mert ez olyan vicces volt. A mikvéért fizetni kellett, de nem tudom mennyit.

Anyuka eleinte le is volt nyírva, parókát is hordott, de már később nem, mert az apám mindig gúnyolta és azt az anyu nem bírta elviselni. Aztán már a haja is megnőtt. A városban a zsidó nők parókát is hordtak, de hajjal is jártak. Az összes nő és fiatal lány kalapban járt, nem kendőben. A dámák csak kalapot tettek. Én is hordtam kalapokat, saját magam készítettem őket.

Nem is tudom megmondani, hogyan nézett ki a szombat. Péntek este mindig kalács volt az asztalon. Le volt takarva, azt tudom. Az apám áldást mondott. Az anyuka az asztalra mindig húslevest tett. A másik étel húsféle volt: libasült és ilyesmi. Szombaton ebédre ugyanaz szokott lenni, ami péntek este. Csináltunk sóletot is. A sólet gersliből, babból és húsból készült. Még pénteken elvittük a pékhez megsütni. A városban kábé három ilyen pék volt, de a nevüket már nem tudom. Mi a Zsidó utcába hordtuk. Szombaton mi gyerekek jártunk érte. A fazékra rá volt ragasztva egy cetli, hogy ez ezé, az meg azé, hogy megtudjuk különböztetni a többitől. Nem emlékszem, hogy megtörtént volna, hogy a cetli leégett volna. Vigyáztak rá. Kb. tizenegy órákor mentünk el a sóletért. Szombaton abszolút nem dolgoztunk. A szülők templomban voltak és délután lefeküdtek, szórakoztak, gyereket csináltak! Akkor volt idő arra is. Mi lányok egymással szórakoztunk. Sábesz végén a nagyapám mindig öntött egy stamperli pálinkát valamire, azt meggyújtották és szagolgattuk. [Lásd: Hávdálá. A szertartás során fűszert szagolgatnak, a végén pedig valamilyen alkohollal oltják el a Hávdálá gyertyát. – A szerk.] Ebből tudtuk, hogy véget ért a sábesz.

A gyerekkoromból jól emlékszem a húsvétra [lásd: Pészah], a hosszúnapokra [lásd: Jom Kipur], a Hanukára, az újévre [lásd: Rosh Hásáná], a pünkösdre [lásd: Sávuot]. Én minden ünnepet szerettem, de legjobban a Purimot, akkor mulatságot rendeztek. Purimkor süteményeket és tésztafélét sütöttek. Tányérokon elküldték másoknak. Azok is visszaküldtek valami tésztát. Mindenfélét sütöttünk, akkor mindenki sütött, és egyik a másikának küldött. A szomszédoknak is adtunk belőle, keresztényeknek is. Pénzt is adtunk a szegényeknek és jiddisül mondogattuk: „Adott a Purim pénzt is, anélkül nem tudott élni!”, így valahogy [Elképzelhető, hogy az interjúalany a következő jiddis purimi mondókára gondolt: „Hájnt iz purim, morgn iz ohsz, git mir a kopek un varft mih arojsz”, azaz „Ma Purim van, holnap már nincs, adj egy kopejkát és dobjál ki.” – A szerk.]. Ezt mondta az ember, amikor odaadta a pénzt. Így volt régen, az öregek, akik vallásosak voltak, hittek benne. Az én nagyapám, igaz, már nem volt olyan vallásos ember, de mindig adott a szegényeknek.

Purimkor én nem mentem, csak a fiúk mentek el a házakhoz, ők játszottak, a lányok nem mentek. Én a barátnőimmel játszottam. Volt nekem egy unokabátyám, a Feri, a Gottesman Samu fia, ő is ment. A többi fiú is ment, hát ő is ment. Amit megtanultak, azt előadták, és kaptak érte pénzt is [Az interjúalany a Purimspielre utal. Lásd: Purim – A szerk.] Feri megszámolta mindig, mennyit keresett. Mondtam neki: „Te bolond! Érdemes azért menni?” Ha volt neki 2-3 koronája, gazdagnak érezte magát. Mi meg röhögtünk rajta. Kinevettük őt, minek mégy te? Kapott 30 kopejkát, 40 kopejkát, mikor mennyit, mert többen mentek, öten–hatan együtt. És hányszor kitoltak vele! A nagyobbak okosabbak voltak, nem annyit adtak nekik, mint amennyi járt volna. Csalók voltak, mi úgy neveztük, lingárok, amikor egyik a másikat becsapta. Nem szép dolog, meg bűn is volt. A zsidó fiú, az rafinált volt. Mindenki csalt! Nem tudtak rendesen viselkedni. Olyan fiúk jöttek, akik igazán szegények voltak, de azért mentek a többiek is, hogy lesz egy pár fillérük. Én gyerek voltam magam is, de amikor elmentek, mindig azt mondtam: „A hülyék mennek, meg a koldusok. Mért nem ültök a seggeteken?”

Húsvét [Pészah] előtt takarítást rendezett az anyám, festést meg mindent. A lakást rendbehoztuk. Kifestette mindenki, aki rá volt utalva, a kicsi lakást mindig ki kellett festeni. A szegény nép az úgy élt, hogy két nappal húsvét előtt minden évben kifestett. Külön pészahi edényt is használtunk. Addig külön volt elzárva a spájzban egy nagy kredencben. Szép volt a húsvét. A pékségben megrendeltük húsvétra a pászkát, 12 kilót, mert 5 gyerek volt. A maceszsütöde azt hiszem, hogy az orosz végen volt. Jártam ott, de nem emlékszem már rá.

A Hanukára is emlékszem. Volt olyan játék, hogy eldugtak egy drájdlit [lásd: trenderli], egy forgót. Eldugták valahova, meg kelletett keresni. Aki megtalálta, kapott pénzt, szabaduláspénzt. Ezzel bolondították a gyerekeket. Szegény gyerekek úgy is jöttek, hogy majd kapnak valamit. Bejöttek hozzánk, valamit azért mindig kaptak. Nem is kérték, csak megálltak. De tudták, hogy miért jöttek szó nélkül is. Jött az ünnep, mindenki kapott valamit.

Az újév [Ros Hásáná] után szoktunk fehér tyúkot és kakast is forgatni a fejük fölött [lásd: kápóresz]. A férfiak kakast, a nők tyúkot. Otthon mindig készültünk erre. Utána levágták és mindenki evett belőle vagy talán odaadták a szegényeknek, már nem tudom [A szárnyasokat a szertartás után mindig levágják és általában a szegényeknek adják, de az
állat levágása kiváltható a szegényeknek adott adománnyal is. – A szerk.]. A forgatás után elvitték metszőhöz a tyúkot és odadták a szomszédnak. Zsidóknak, de a keresztényeknek is. Már megszokták ők is. Volt olyan szomszédunk, aki már várta, hogy mikor kapja meg. Ez az áldozat, a kipure [A szertartást nevezik kápóre-nek, ami áldozatot jelent, a felhasznált szárnyast pedig kápóresznek. – A szerk.]. Jom Kipurkor kint voltunk egész nap a templomban mi, gyerekek is. A böjt után először egy kávét kaptunk és aztán már jöhetett a többi, ami járt. Szoktunk a vízhez is járni imádkozni, a Latoricához [lásd: táslich]. A víz szélén álltak zsidók és mondták a mondókájukat. Sokan meg is fürödtek, de csak a férfiak. A nők meg áztatták a lábukat. Sok ember tartózkodott akkor a víznél. A rabbi vezette az egészet.

Sátoros ünnepkor [lásd: Szukot] az apuka az udvaron sátrat épített. Nem emlékszem, hogy hogyan nézett ki, de tudom, hogy hosszú volt. A tetőt lefedték ágakkal. Az udvarbeli emberek mind ott vacsoráztak. Csak a vallásos emberek építettek sátrat, a többiek áttmentek valakihez vacsorázni, de ebédelni is ott szoktunk. Ha esett az eső, az apu úgy oldotta meg, hogy a nejlont húzatott rá és akkor is ott lehetettünk. Én sokszor nem voltam ott. Elmentem lingároskoni. Az mit jelent? Hát ha egy lány elmegy mulatni a társaságba, nem egy rendes lány...

Hatéves kortól a zsidó gyermekek már tanulták a vallást, de én csak nyolcéves koromban kezdtem. A Sugár utcában volt az iskola tudniillik a héder – A szerk. Mindenfélét tanultunk, vallásos dologokat és ilyesmit. Magyarul tanítottak minket, de azt akarták, hogy héberül is tanuljunk. Nekem nem ment, valamit tudtam, de olyan buta voltam. Négy évig jártam oda. Beszélni is megtanultam héberül egy keveset, de ma már nem tudok. Jiddisül anyám taníttatott minket. Nálunk csak lányok voltak, apám nem akart velünk sokat foglalkozni. Jött egy zsidó tanító hozzánk, és ő tanította az imát, meg a héber írást. Az édesanyám azt akarta, hogy mindent tanuljak, mindent tudjak. Magyarul, oroszul, csehül, és jiddisül is beszélek. Anyánk mindig akarta, hogy legyünk jó zsidók. Volt, hogy mindennap bejött hozzánk a tanár. Amikor nagylányok lettünk, akkor is járt még. Én sokszor megmondtam, hogy nem szeretem őt, mert mindig tapogatni akart. A többi lány is panaszkodott erre. De hát mit csináltak volna. Amint odajött, megmondtam: „Ne tapogasson, tartsa a kezét magánál! Az ölébe is ültetett, de nem akartam odaülni. „Én nem vagyok a maga gyermeke! Fogok egy széket és üljön ott, ha tanít, ne üljön mellém.” Neki az kellett, hogy az ölébe üljek, hát üljön oda a keserűség! Utáltam őt azért. Mindig mondtam: „Ne jöjjön ide hozzánk, mert én megfogom ölni! Mit gondol!” Anyám meg: „Hogy beszélsz ezzel az emberrel!” Aztán anyám elismerte, hogy nem jó. A többi testvéremet nem ültette az ölébe, ők okosabbak voltak tőlem. A zsidó rabbik lingárok voltak. Csak mindenért pénzt kértek. A Spira utána olyan rabbik lettek, hogy nem is kellettek inkább. Az a rabbi fölösleges volt, éppen olyan büdös volt, mint a többi. Elment a sikszével [jiddis: ’nem zsidó’], és lefeküdt vele. Minden ember bűnös, akik részt vesz ilyesmibe. Nem szabad olyannak lenni, de mégis olyan volt.

Négy elemit és négy polgárit [lásd: polgári iskola] végeztem. Először héber elemibe jártam, de utána az apám kiíratott és tovább az orosz elemi iskolába jártam. Hatéves koromban jártam első osztályba, pedig csak hetedik évben vettek fel oda gyerekeket. De felvettek, mert szorgalmas, jó gyerek voltam. Nagyon rossz volt nekem bejárni a héber elemibe, mert messze volt. Nem is szerettem odajárni, nem szerettem, hogy ha sokan voltak és elkezdtek kritizálni valakit, hogy nem olyan elegáns, meg nem úgy öltözködik, ahogy ezek a módos zsidó lányok öltöztek. A városban volt cseh iskola is, csehül is lehetett tanulni, de nekem könnyebb volt az oroszba járni. Azért írattak be oda, mert közel volt, csak a Zrínyi utcán kellett végig menni, és onnan tíz házzal odébb volt az iskola. Külön ukrán iskola nem volt a városban, csak cseh iskola, magyar iskola, héber iskola és orosz iskola. Az elemiben egy magyar nő volt a tanítónő, az igazgató felesége. Az órán elmondta magyarul is, meg oroszul is a tananyagot. Azt mondta, nem baj, megtanultok ti oroszul is, megtanultok magyarul is. Nehéz volt nagyon.

A polgári iskola után bekerültem a héber gimnáziumba. Két évet tanultam csak ott, mert aztán elmentem onnan. Magam se tudom miért. A héber gimnáziumban csak zsidó tanárok voltak. Mindenfélét tanultunk. Az a két év alatt, amikor odajártam, nem voltunk nyugodtak. Az anyánk izgatott volt miattunk, a keresztények nem szerették, ha valaki zsidó iskolába jár. Féltették a gyerekeket elengedni az iskolába. A szülők eléjük jöttek, amikor haza kellett menni. Félve mentek ki, mert valamikor meg is ütötték őket a más nemzetiségűek.

Kitanultam kalaposnőnek. Egy kalaposműhelyben dolgoztam. Vogel Ilona, egy zsidó nő volt a főnököm. Ő tanította nekem a kalapos mesterséget. Nem volt szigorú főnök, inkább olyan volt, mint egy barátnő. Hála az Istennek nem volt bajom senkivel. Fógel Ilona Ungvárra való volt, ide jött férjhez Munkácsra, és itt nyitott egy szalont, ahol én dolgoztam nála. Fógel Ilona egy Dattler nevezetű emberhez ment férjhez, de nem jól éltek. Az egy olyan züllött ember volt. Aztán megcsalta ő is a férjét, bosszút állt rajta.

Egyedül én csináltam a kalapokat, mert csak ketten voltunk, a főnöknő és én. Meg voltak még tanulók, akik még egyedül nem merték vállalni. Nem volt nehéz munka, egyszerre csak két kalapra való anyagot kellett megdolgozni. Városban lehetett kész kalapot is venni, a Bródy nagykereskedésben. Tőle is vettünk kész kalapot és ezeket árusítottuk, de gyártottunk is megrendelésre. Mi csak női kalapokkal foglalkoztunk, mert Munkácson volt külön férfi kalapos üzlet is. Gyönyörű kalapokat hordtak akkor az emberek, ma már nincs is olyan kalap. Szép, elegáns kalapok. Volt vásárló, jöttek mindig. Pláne szezonban mindenki új kalapot akart, sokat dolgoztunk. Nyáron volt olyan idő, hogy mindennap elmentek a kalapok.

Egy elegánsabb kalap harminc-negyven rubelbe került. Készítettünk nagy karimás kalapokat, tollakkal, virágokkal. A műhelyben árusítottuk a kalapokat, egy ünnepi kalapot hamar eladtak. Mindig bejöttek nézelődni. Több ilyen műhely volt a városban. Emlékszem, hogy egy másik kalapszalon főnöknője, Weingartner Rózsi mindig a legelegánsabb kalapokat hordta. A legnagyobb kalapgyár és üzlet a Kaiseré volt. Sokan dolgoztak nála, de én csak olyan helyen voltam, ahol két–három nő dolgozott.

Gyermekkoromban az apuval szoktunk kirándulni a Zsarnóra, ott volt egy fürdő. Jártunk is oda fürödni. Úgy két–három kilométerre volt Munkácstól, gyalog jártunk oda. Megfürödtünk, ettünk valamit. Jól éreztük magunkat. Én vasárnap délelőtt mentem korzózni. Anélkül nem volt egy vasárnap. Csak a Fő úton sétáltunk, barátnőkkel együtt. Keresztény lányok is jártak velünk. Felöltöztünk, nem úgy, mint ma járok, rongyosan. Emlékszem, hogy fiatal koromban még igyekeztem, hogy elegánsan járjak. Minden vasárnap más kalapban mentem ki. De aztán, mikor már az oroszok lettek, más idők voltak. Jártunk kávéházakba is, főleg a Csillagba. Ott mindenféle akadt, zsidó és nem zsidó, az nem számított.

Szabad időmben a kommunista pártba [lásd: Csehszlovák Kommunista Párt] jártam. Nem volt más, és általában a zsidók legtöbbször oda mentek. Jártam táncolni, a kommunista pártban volt tánciskola. Ott megtanultam táncolni. Sokan voltunk ott barátnők. A többi testvérem nem járt velem. Az apukám minden héten eljárt a kommunista pártba, mert tag volt. Már a háború előtt is sok kommunista élt a városban. Ha volt a május elsejei ünnepség, akkor rengetegen jöttek fiatalok, idősek is. Felvonultak a központban. Sok ember gyűlt akkor össze. Én is elmentem, de nem éreztem ott jól magam. Sokszor mondtam az apunak, hogy ezek nem kommunisták, ezek csak érdekből jönnek, mert kajálni akarnak. Május elsején mindig adtak ebédet is. Az anyuka nem szerette a kommunistákat.

Volt két barátnőm, akik sajnos már meghaltak. Az egyik megölte magát a lágerban. Nem bírta, mi még tartottuk magunkat, de ő fogta magát és ment a dróthoz, és megfogta [A koncentrációs táborokat körülvevő drótkerítésben magasfeszültségű áram keringett, amely azonnal agyonütötte azt, aki megérintette. – A szerk.]. Ez még Auschwitzban volt.

Az Etus húgom szintén orosz iskolába járt Nem lehet pontosan tudni, milyen iskolába jártak az interjúalany húgai, mert először héber iskolát mondott, másodszor pedig orosz iskolát. – A szerk.. Etus fodrásznak tanult ki és egy szövetkezetben dolgozott. Rellának nem kellett tanulnia, mert férjhez ment tizennyolc évesen. Addig egy üzletben alkalmazták, mint eladót. A férjét Grünberger Izidornak hívták, mesterségére nézve szabómester, külön szalonja volt. Rella először velünk lakott, aztán elköltöztek. Az esküvő hüpe alatt történt egy pénteki napon, aztán szombaton rendezték meg a lakodalmat. Sok ember összejött. Otthon az udvaron tartottuk meg, nem volt nagyon vallásos az esküvő. A férfiak és a nők együtt voltak, nem voltak külön. Azelőtt külön voltak, de az 1930-as években már keveredtek. Rellának az anyukám öt párnát és egy paplant adott mint hozományt. A férje nem hozott, mert ők faluban laktak. A sógorom [zsidó]  neve Szruli volt, és az apámé is Szruli volt, ezért kérvényt kellett beladni, hogy a Szrul feleségül veheti-e egy Szrul lányát. Lehetett, megengedték.

Ibolya testvérem apácazárdába járt iskolába. Ő akart oda járni, mert a barátnői is oda mentek. Nem járt oda sok zsidó lány, csak egy pár. A hittanórákon nem vett részt. Mindennap bejárt az iskolába, itt volt Munkácson a főutcán. Ibolya később egy üzletben dolgozott eladóként. Nemsokára férjhez ment. A sógoromat Spielman Lajosnak hívták. Nem tudom már, hogy mi volt a foglalkozása. Az Ibolya és a férje nem jött vissza a koncentrációs táborból. Rivka még csak gyerek volt [amikor deportálták].

A csehek alatt jobban éltek itt az emberek. De nem volt valami mesebeli életünk. A csehek a városból lassacskán elmentek [Munkács 1938-ban, az első bécsi döntés után ismét Magyarországhoz került. – A szerk.]. Apám eleinte tudott még dolgozni, aztán behívták munkaszolgálatra. Az 1940-es években vitték el az apukám.

Ezekhez az időkhöz tartozik még egy történet. Élt itt Munkácson egy jegyző, Szarka Géza, nagyon jó barátunk volt. Podheringben lakott, Munkács egy kis kerületében. [Podhering Podhorján: Rutén és német lakosságú kisközség Munkács mellett, nagy mezőgazdasági szeszgyárral és sörgyárral. Az itt vívott podheringi csata az 1848-1849-es magyar szabadságharc legjelentősebb ütközete volt Kárpátalján. – A szerk.] Nagyon rendes emberek voltak arrafelé igazán, nem bántottak minket. Nem féltem kimenni az utcára. A jegyzőnek az volt a szokása, hogy jött arra mifelénk, és mindig kiabálta nekem: „Jaj, a Sááára, jaj a Sááára!” Ott keringett a házunk előtt, mert tetszettem neki. Mondtam neki, olyan vagy te, mint egy kondás. Mert azt kiabálta nekem mindig: „Jaj, a Sááára!”, mintha disznókat hajkurászna. „Ne kiabáljon, elég volt – mondtam – menjen a bús fenekére!” De nem volt semmi baj.

Egy éjszaka ott is aludtam náluk, mert kerestek a csendőrségből amiatt, hogy én a kommunista pártba jártam. Bementem a jegyzőségre. Nem hívtak, csak úgy mondtam, hogy megyek kihallgatásra. De a jegyzőhöz mentem a lakására. Ott elrejtőztem, ott is aludtam. Kiállított nekem egy papírt, hogy én megbízható személy vagyok. Segítettek, a jegyző is, a jegyzőné is. Később, a háború után Szarka Géza Ungváron lakott a feleségével. Találkoztam velük. Amikor meglátott engem, megörült nekem, hogy lát, hogy jól vagyok.

Ez a jegyző egy ideig segítette apámat. Az apám eleinte a közelben volt munkaszolgálatos. Mindig ahogy behívták, a jegyző másnap hazaengedte. Egy nap bent volt, másnap a jegyző hazaengedte. De nemsokára rájöttek, hogy nem volt ott, hát megint bement. Ez többször is volt. Éjszakára amikor hazaengedték, a jegyző elhozta őt autóval. A többi zsidó mindig mondogatta: „Na, nézd meg, micsoda ember, autóval viszik őtet!” Hát mondta: „A podheringi szomszédom!” Nekik ez nem tetszett. Reggel visszament szolgálatba. A jegyző mindig hazavitte, néha náluk maradt, a szülei lakásában. Nagyon nehéz volt bujdosni a jegyző is reszkírozta magát, hogy megmentette őt. De ő csak azt hajtogatta, hogy tessék csak hazamenni, és kész! És tessék megmondani a Sárikának, hogy üdvözlöm! Én azt mondom, amit csinált, magának csinálta. Mondtam is: „Ej, ej, ha egyszer eljön az a nap, amikor én ezt mindet kifele fogom nyírni!” Őtet nem bántottam volna, mert jó ember volt. És a felesége is olyan aranyos volt. Utána kivitték apámat a frontra takarítani, a halottakat elcipelni. Nagy munka volt. Többé nem találkoztam vele.

Amikor a magyarok bejöttek [lásd: első bécsi döntés], akkor én még kalaposként dolgoztam. Ameddig a főnököm, Vogel Ilona élt még, mert őt is elvitték és megölték. Akkor már nem volt nekünk semmink. Semmi nélkül voltunk. Éltünk, míg éltünk. Csak az a fő, hogy éltünk. Azután jött a nagy nap! Elpusztították a zsidókat. 1944-ben kezdődött a cirkusz. Munkácson is volt gettó, a Zsidó utcában és a héber gimnáziumban. Eleinte még sikerült bujdosnom a keresztény barátnőknél. Egy fiú el is akart venni feleségül, de én nem akartam őt, nem is tetszett az a fiú. De utána elvittek a magyarok a gettóba. Nem is tudom, meddig voltunk ott. Mikor én bekerültem oda, az anyukámat már elvitték. Az Ibolya is vele ment. Három testvér maradt: Rella, Etus és én. A gettóban megtetvesedtünk. Tetveket szedtem ki a ruhából. Annyi volt, mint a... Nem is bírtam. Levetkőztem és kimostam a ruhát, de csak hideg vízben lehetett. Kiteregettem, amíg meg nem száradt, addig pucéran jártam. Nyár volt. Sokan voltunk ott, fiatalok, öregek. A gettóban dolgoztunk is, ami jött. Én például mindig lámpát gyújtottam a rendőrfőnöknek, az volt a munkám; kipucolni a lámpát, rendbetenni. A többi testvérem nem tudom, hogy mit csinált.

Munkácsról elvittek Auschwitz-Birkenauba. Nem tudom, pontosan meddig voltunk Auschwitzban. Sokáig maradtunk ott. Auschwitzban nem kérdezték, hogy beteg vagy-e, fáj valamid, megölték az embert és kész! Adtak ott nekem munkát is. Ruhákat válogattunk, amit a zsidók hordtak. Csak a jó ruhát keresték, ami egész és szép. Gyerekruhákat is. Odaadták az embereknek [németeknek], evvel segítették őket, de nem mondták meg, hogy zsidó gyerekeket ölték meg ezért. A testvéreim is ezt csinálták, csak a másik helységben. Egy német vitt be minket ebbe a raktárba. Azt mondta, ha akartok, dolgozni menjetek. Magyarul mondta, de nem mutatta soha a pofáját, elfordulva beszélt mindig. Lehet, hogy aztán találkoztunk is, biztos ismerős volt. Magyarul is megmondta, hogy nem kell félni, hogy türelmesnek kell lenni! Auschwitzba, még elég jó volt. Egyszer egy nap ennivalót osztottak ki délután. Egy kis szemes borsót és egy kis savanyú káposztát. Inni nem kaptunk, csak ittunk abból a vízből, ami Auschwitzban folyt.

Auschwitzból Neustadt Gleve-be [A ravensbrücki koncentrációs tábor egyik altábora. – A szerk.] mentünk. Egy német sorban kiválasztotta, hogy ki mehet. Én és az Etus húgom mentünk tovább. Rella Auschwitzban maradt. Egy darabig vonaton utaztunk, de utána már gyalog. Nagyon keserves volt az út. Gyakran ledöglöttünk, mint a döglények. A német katonák se bírták az iramot. Az egyik katona egy magyar fiú volt. Azt mondta: „Tartsanak ki, könyörgök, tartsanak ki, nem szabad elhagyni magukat!” Mondom: „Maga hallja magát! Miért ott van, miért nincs közöttünk!?” „Nézzenek, nem én jöttem ide, hanem a szüleim. Svábok voltak.” De azért megvédett minket, tisztességes volt. Az Isten engem úgy segített, hogy soha egy görbe szót nem mondott nekem. Útközben nem ettünk semmit, csak havat.

Neustadt Gleve-ben kábé nyolc hónapig maradtunk. Rosszabb volt, mint Auschwitzban, de a pokol egyforma volt. Barakkokban laktunk. Egy ágyba hatan is lefeküdtünk, de hogy ki honnan származott, azt nem tudom. Az a magyar fiú igyekezett mindig, hogy egy-egy konzervdoboz ételt ellopjon nekünk. Azt mondta, hogy tegye a kezébe és vigye haza. Volt, hogy a konzervon, amit a magyar fiú adott, elvágtam a kezem, de csak bekötöttem és dolgoztam tovább. Nagyon nehéz azt elmondani, amit mi átéltünk. Aki valamire való volt, azt vitték munkára. Repülőgyárban dolgoztunk, én és a húgom is, az Etus. Sokszor elrontottuk a munkát, azért kikaptunk. Nem tudtuk jól eltalálni a lyukakat, amiket fúrni kellett. Lehet, hogy sokszor bosszúból készakarva csináltuk. Mindig kiabáltak. Egy nap egyszer kaptunk enni. Valami levest adtak, valamilyen krumplilevest vagy káposztalevest. Volt, amikor habart krumplit. Meghabarták tejjel és vízzel. Jó volt az is, finom volt, olyan jót nem ettem soha! Mert éhes voltam, azért. Ott a repülőgépgyárban a német munkások olyan jók voltak, hogy titokban adtak egy darab kenyeret. Megkenték vajjal, és letették, hogy együk meg. Mindig azt mondta az egyik, hogy itt van, ez a magáé, egye meg és kész! Én tudtam németül.

Amikor megjöttek az oroszok, felszabadultunk. [A szovjet hadsereg 1945. április 30-án szabadította fel a fő tábort, Ravenbrücköt. – A szerk.] Le voltunk gyengülve, keserves volt. Nem emlékszem rá, mert olyan borzasztó volt. Egy halom kenyér feküdt ott, kiöntötték az auóból és azt mondták, hogy egyetek. Hát kinek kellett enni, amikor már alig éltünk. Teherautóval hoztak minket egy darabig. Aztán mentünk gyalog is, autóval is, mikor hogy. Végül hazajöttünk Munkácsra. A húgommal maradtunk ketten, nem volt senkink, mint a kutyák egyedül maradtunk. Az Ibolya meghalt, anyámat megölték, nem volt senkink, egyedül voltunk.

1945-ben érkeztünk haza nyáron. Nem is tudom, hogy kivel laktam és hol. Mikor hazajöttünk, megvolt a kertes ház a Zrínyi utcában, de laktak benne, és még ma is laknak. Idevaló emberek, olyan rongyos koldusok. Bementek a lakásba, és beültek. Jobb nem beszélni róla, mert csak fáj a szíve az embernek, hogy mit hagyott ott. Otthagytunk egy szép lakást, tele volt mindennel. Vissza lehetne szerezni, de nekem nem kell! Én már nem akartam elmenni se oda, még megnézni se! Elvették a szőlőnket is, ami Munkács szélén volt, ahogy a zsidókat elvitték, elvettek mindent. Visszajöttünk ugyan, de semmink nincs! Nem baj, mi mindent megszereztünk magunknak most másodszor.

A két húgom, Etus és Rella elég hamar elmentek innen Izraelbe. Először ment az egyik, és aztán ment a másik. Rella és a férje előbb hazajöttek Munkácsra, aztán elmentek Izraelbe. Van egy lányuk. Rella már nem él, és a férje is meghalt. Etus férjét Weit Gézának hívják, Magyarországról, Mándokról származott. Itt Munkácson ismerkedtek meg a háború után, és itt is házasodtak össze. Aztán elmentek Izraelbe. Etelka körülbelül 20 éve ott megbetegedett. A férje is meghalt, idősebb volt, mint ő vagy 8 évvel. A lánya és a két fia ott laknak Izraelben. A fiúk itt születtek még Munkácson. Az egyik egyszer volt itt látogatóban nálunk tavaly. Úgy örült, hogy látott engem, hogy még vagyok. Tud magyarul ő is, mindenki úgy ment el, hogy csak a magyar nyelvet tudták.

A háború után elmentek sokan, én meg itt maradtam. Nem akartam menni sehová. Akkor rögtön a háború Etus hívogatott: „Gyere, gyere!” Mondtam: „Nem megyek! Én itthon maradok és kész.” Nem mentem, mert én itt voltam otthon, megszoktam ezt az életet. Sokan kimentek, ők voltak az okosak. Valahogy az volt rám írva, hogy nekem ez a sorsom. Segítettek engem, egy ember törődött velem. Zsidó volt ő is, a hitközségből. Enni hozott és megkérdezte, hogy hiányzik-e valami. Nem hiányzott semmi. Feljöttek mindennap megkérdezni. A zsidó konyhán nagyon jól főztek, de én mégsem jártam oda enni. Nem tudtam ott valahogy enni. Megfőztek minden szart, és én ezt nem bírtam. Olyan szakácsnő főzött ott, aki kijelentette, hogy megdögölnek ők úgyis! Zsidó volt, de őt nem vitték koncentrákba [koncentrációs táborba]. A háború előtt nem is ismertem, oroszul beszélt. Lehet, hogy orosz volt. Csak azt kívántam neki mindennap, hogy dögöljön meg, úgy imádkoztam.

A háború után eleinte egy gyárban dolgoztam, de nem sokáig. Ez egy asztalosműhely volt. Fiúk, lányok, fiatalok dolgoztak ott. Aztán egy kalapszalonban dolgoztam, egy kis üzletben. Nem állami volt, mert még engedték egy darabig a maszek szektort, de nem sokáig. Egy főnöknőm volt. Jobb volna nem beszélni róla! Női kalapszalon volt Munkácson, a Latorica udvarban. A kalapüzletben csak ketten-hárman dolgoztunk. És mikor nem akartam dolgozni, azt mondta a főnököm, mehetsz haza magadnak. Egész nyugdíjig ott voltam. 60 éves koromban mentem nyugdíjba, de én már nyugdíj előtt nem dolgoztam, már előtte abbahagytam.

Miután hazajöttem, nem akartam férjhez menni, mert vártam a fiúmra. Mindig azt mondtam, hogy engem nem érdekel, majd ha jön! De az a zsidó nem jött vissza soha. Biztos meghalt. Végül 1945-ben vagy 1946-ban férjhez mentem egy keresztény emberhez, a Velkeihez. A láger után ismertem meg őt. Egy keresztény asszonynál laktam egy lakásban. Befogadott, és ez a férfi oda járt ahhoz az asszonyhoz, és belém szeretett. Összeházasodtunk, egy év múlva talán. Ő akart rögtön, de én mondtam, hogy nem, várok még, hátha hazajönnek a zsidók. De nem jöttek. Nem volt más zsidó fiú. Nem jöttek vissza a lágerből. Vagy megölték őket, vagy továbbmentek, mert aki tudott, elment külföldre. Nem volt érdemes várni.

Akkor elvett engem Velkei Jenő. Asztalos volt, Munkácson született, 4 évvel volt idősebb nálam. Nagyon jó ember volt, nagyon finom ember. Mindig mondták, hogy nem kell hozzámenni, mert majd a szemedre veti. Soha egy szóval meg nem bántott engem amiatt, hogy én zsidó vagyok. Jó ember volt, nem volt zsidó, de velem érzett. Tudta, hogy én el voltam nyomva, sajnáltak. Az apja is nagyon rendes ember volt. Soha nem hányta a szememre, hogy én zsidó vagyok. Az anyja is jó volt, pedig német asszony volt, Németországból került ide. Az apósom magyar volt. Az anyósom nem is tudott jól magyarul beszélni, mindig németül beszélt. És később mi is németül beszéltünk egymással, hogy a gyerekek ne tudjanak semmit. Ez volt a titkos nyelvünk az anyósommal, mert a gyerekek nem tudtak németül.

A férjem apjának volt egy bútorgyára. Jómódúak voltak. Az esküvő után bevettek minket a férjemmel egy szobába. Náluk laktunk. Azt már nem tudom, hogy mikor lett saját lakásunk. Amikor a lágerből hazajöttem, rá vagy két évre. Nehezen, de éltünk. Hamar megszületett a két gyerekem, 1951-ben a Kálmán, és 1953-ban a Pisti. Egy lányom is volt, ő 1948-ban született, de meghalt, amikor 22 éves volt. Beteg volt, nem tudták megállapítani, hogy mi baja. Nekem ez keserű volt. Ő volt az első gyerek. A gyerekek magyar iskolába jártak, megtanultak írni-olvasni magyarul, mint ahogy én is megtanultam még a magyarok alatt. Csak magyarul beszéltünk a gyerekekkel. Én csak magyarul beszéltem, semmi más nyelven, az anyanyelvem magyar. Mindkét fiam autókat javít, autószerelők lettek.

Megmondtam a gyerekeknek, hogy zsidó vagyok, elmondtam nekik, hogy mi lett a családdal. A fiaim talán leginkább magyarnak tartják magukat. Én is azt mondom, hogy magyar vagyok, magyarnak születtem, magyar dajka dalolt fölöttem. Gyerekkoromban otthon a családban csak magyarul beszéltünk. Akár zsidó is lehetek, de magyar vagyok. Nem tudok én már más lenni.

Hogy zsidó voltam, nem tudtam letagadni. Hozzámentem egy keresztény emberhez. Jó ember volt, engem szeretett. A gyermekeim meg fele zsidó, fele keresztények. A házasságom alatt is tartottam zsidó ünnepeket. Tartottuk, mert nem volt vallásos ember a férjem. Azt mondta, ahová te mész, megyek én is. Csak a nagyobb ünnepeket tartottuk. Egy ideig sikerült még kóser háztartást is vezetnem, de nem sokáig, mert már nem létezett metsző. Amikor én tartottam az ünnepeket, a férjem mindent, amit kellett, megcsinált. Eleinte, amíg a gyermekek kicsik voltak, zsidó vallásra neveltük, de aztán nem akartam, hogy zsidók legyenek többet, hogy fogják őket üldözni. A férjem nem mondott semmit.

Volt antiszemitizmus, de én nem törődtem velük. Még korzózni is jártam. Vasárnap reggel kijöttem a korzóra, ott a Fő úton volt a korzó, magyar lányokkal mentem mindig. Vasárnap jöttem ki, felöltöztem, kalapba, elegánsan, mint egy dáma. Aztán a gyerekeket is vittem, bár a fiúk inkább halászni mentek. Az 1960-as, 1970-es években jó volt. Jártam külföldön, voltunk nyaralni. Magyarországra utaztunk, Velkeiékhez mentünk, rokonokhoz. A férjemmel minden évben mentünk Magyarba, de messzebb nem mentünk sehova. A gyerekek mentek.

A fiam, Pisti egy orosz nőt vett el, most már az a nyelv maradt. Van egy aranyos kislányuk, már 18 éves. Nálam laknak. A kislány elvégezte már az iskolát. Még azért tanul levelezőn, de nem tudom mit. Ő is tud magyarul, persze. Nem beszél olyan perfekt magyarul, de tud. A Kálmánnak szintén van egy lánya és egy fia is. Ő szintén autókat javít. Kálmán szintén egy orosz anyanyelvű nőt vett el.

A családban én vagyok az egyedüli zsidó. Én tartottam a vallást, mert anyukám is tartotta. De most már  modern emberek vannak, semmit sem tartanak. Öt-hat évvel ezelőtt még jártam templomba ünnepekkor. De nincs Munkácson zsidó templom, csak kis templomocskák vannak, ott imádkoznak. A régi zsidó templom nincs meg, a helyén ma egy áruház van. Én oda nem megyek, ott nekem olyan furcsa. Egy templomból csináltak egy áruházat, voltam ott bent, de nem szeretek ott lenni.

A testvérem gyerekei tartják a zsidó hagyományokat [Izraelben]. De én itt nem tudom tartani, mert itt nincs semmi kóser. A hitközségbe nem járok, ők jönnek fel néha. Mivel nem látok, már nem jönnek soha. Nincs barátnőm, keresztény sincs. Azok is elmaradtak tőlem, mert nem látok. Eljön ide a szomszédasszonyom, mert az még lánykori barátnő, fodrásznő volt, a húgommal dolgozott. Feljön ide, de nagyon ritkán.

85 éves vagyok, sokat átéltem. Voltam a lágerben. Anyámat megölték, apámat megölték, a húgomat megölték, még két testvérem volt, ők is meghaltak. Én a legidősebb lány vagyok, és egyedül maradtam. Nem vagyok fáradt soha. Sokat gondolkozom, erről, arról, és minden olyan nem jó. Én mennyit dolgoztam, csak dolgoztam. Semmi nem jó.
 

Tevan Zsófia

Életrajz

Tevan Zsófia egy budai lakásban él, öccse a közvetlen szomszédja. Szép könyvtára van, amelyben a Tevan Nyomda legismertebb kiadványai is megtalálhatók, de a család iparművész tagjaitól is őriz emlékeket. 82 évesen  is sokat utazgat, programokat szervez magának, szereti a társaságot, tájékozott a politikai és a kulturális életben. Szívélyes beszélgetőpartner, örömmel és megható őszinteséggel mesélte el a saját és családja történetét.

A családom Dolný Kubinból származik [Alsókubin – nagyközség státusú település volt Árva vm. alsókubini járásában, a vármegye székhelye. A trianoni békeszerződéssel Csehszlovákiához került, ma Szlovákia része. – A szerk.]. Békéscsaba történetétben olvastam, van egy ilyen kis könyv, hogy Békéscsaba mocsaras vidék volt, teljesen kihalt a törökök után, és gróf Harruckern János György, Mária Teréziának a hadiszállítója kapta meg ezt a birtokot [Harruckern János György (1664–1742) – gyökeresen átalakította a császári sereg élelmezési igazgatását, amiért is VI. Károly német-római császártól mint III. Károly magyar királytól 1720-ban királyi adományként megkapta a Békés, Csongrád és Zaránd vármegyékben levő, a kincstárra visszaháramlott jószágokat, 1729-ben a magyar bárói méltóságot, majd 1738-ban Békés vármegye főispáni székét. – A szerk.]. Elment a Felvidékre, és ott szegény tótokból verbuvált csapatot, akik azután eljöttek Békéscsabára, és azok alapították a várost [Haan Lajos, Békéscsaba kutatója szerint 1717-ben települt be Békéscsabára az első három felvidéki  tót család, de a település maga már a 13. század óta lakott volt. – A szerk.]. A tót családokkal együtt két zsidó család jött, a Reis és a Tevan, akiknek a leszármazottja vagyok. Ezt olyan mondta, akinek a szülei még emlékeztek erre, a deportálás idején 94 éves volt, akkor vitték el, Révész Fülöpnek hívták, Reisről magyarosított. Ő a nagymamám első unokatestvére volt, és ő írta le a családtörténetbe, hogy ilyen ekhós szekereken jöttek le. Állítólag az én őseim kékfestők voltak eredetileg Dolný Kubinban. De ez megint olyan, hogy nem tudom, csak ezt mondták. Úgy tudom, a dédapámnak már kocsmája volt Békéscsabán, ott van eltemetve Békéscsabán a zsidó temetőben. S bár most nem találtam meg a sírját, még emlékszem rá, hogy régen megvolt. És azt hiszem, az ükapám is ott volt eltemetve.

Tevan Adolf, a nagyapám 1854-ben született, és meghalt 1921-ben, a születésem előtt egy évvel. Békéscsabán született. Ő alapította a nyomdát. Sok mindennel foglalkozott, de ő még nem volt nyomdai szakember, csak megvette a nyomdát egy francia származású embertől, azt hiszem Le Page-nak hívták az illetőt. A családi legendárium szerint, mikor Erzsébet lánya 16 éves volt, elmentek valami bálba, és nagyapám ott találkozott ezzel a nyomdásszal, akitől aztán megvette a nyomdáját. Ez két elavult nyomdagépet jelentett. 1903-ban történt. Én nem is tudtam, hogy az melyik ház, de most, amikor a nyomda fennállásának századik évfordulóját ünnepelték, megtudtam. A színház mellett volt a Fő utcán, ott volt egy könyvkereskedés, és mögötte volt a nyomda, primitív nyomdagépekkel kell elképzelni. De ő a legnagyobb fiát, Andort már tudatosan Bécsbe küldte a nyomdaipari főiskolára tanulni [1907–1910 között tanult Bécsben, nevéhez fűződik a Tevan-könyvtár megindítása, melyben kortárs hazai és külföldi irodalmi műveket jelentettek meg, valamint a Tevan Amatőrsorozat. – A szerk.]. Úgyhogy aztán ő fejlesztette naggyá, és ő volt a kiadó is. Az édesapám azt mondta, hogy a nagyapám nem tartotta semmilyen vonatkozásban a vallást, még csak a nagyünnepeken se mentek el templomba. Annyit tudok róla, hogy művelt, okos ember lehetett. Fennmaradtak levelek, amelyeket Margit lányának írt, az összes gyerekét igyekezett valami felé terelni, leginkább mérnökök lettek, azt szerette. Mondta is, hogy ügyvédnek és újságírónak ne menjetek. Ezt a kettőt kizárta, mert ugye ezek eléggé zsidó foglalkozások voltak. Hanem inkább az iparművészet felé terelte őket: két lány, Margit és Ilona iparművész volt. És a fiúk között kettő mérnök lett. A László, a legkisebb fia, aki később filozófus lett, nem tudott leérettségizni, mert az utolsó évben, akkor volt az 1919-es forradalom lásd: Tanácsköztársaság, diákként valamiben részt vett, és kirúgták a gimnáziumból. Akkor elküldte az apja Németországba, hogy tanuljon valami szakmát. Dobozgyártást. Ott ismerte meg a feleségét, aki egy reichsdeutsch volt, azaz németországi német.

Apai nagymamám, Fischer Teréz 1863-ban született, és meghalt 1944-ben, Auschwitzban. Azt hiszem, ő is Békéscsabán született. A nagyapám állítólag filozófus hajlamú volt, olvasott, meg tulajdonképpen egy időben szikvízgyáruk volt, üzemük, és azt a nagymamám vezette a kilenc gyerek mellett. Ő foglalkozott még evvel is. Nagyapámról mindig az volt az elképzelésem, hogy ő nem ezen a világon élt két lábbal valahogy. Hát annyiban igen, hogy az egy jó lépése volt, hogy megvásárolta a nyomdát. És ezzel lehetőséget adott az egyik fiának meg az egész családnak.

Nagy házuk volt, ahol azért kilenc gyerek nevelődött. Rengeteg szoba volt. A folyosókról nyíltak. Mára teljesen lebontották, földszintes épület volt, aztán emeletráépítés volt, és hátul volt a nyomda. Volt egy kert, ahol mi, gyerekek szerettünk játszani. Kicsi, de nagyon bozótos, elhanyagolt volt, de nekünk ezért tetszett, nem kellett semmire vigyázni, lehetett mindent csinálni. Tulajdonképpen azért sokat jártam oda, mert nem is volt messze tőlünk. De többre nem emlékszem. Az édesapám mindig gúnyolódott az édesanyjával, a nagymamámmal, mert nagyon spórolós volt. Ő ahhoz szokott hozzá, hogy kilenc gyereket fel kell nevelni. Nem gyújtott be télen. Mindig azt mondta, hogy gyertya ég a kályhában, csak azért, hogy lássunk valamit. És hideg volt. Emlékszem, ha télen mentem hozzájuk, mindig hideg volt ott.

Az anyai nagyapám Deutsch Béla. Én úgy tudom, hogy 1850-ben született, Békésen [Békés – nagyközség volt, 1891-ben 25 100 főnyi lakossal. – A szerk.]. 86 éves volt, mikor meghalt 1936-ban. Békéscsabán a közraktárban volt valami tisztviselő. Kistisztviselő volt. Békésen éltek testvérei, de őket nem ismertem. A nagymamához én nagyon kötődtem. Náluk nevelkedtem sokáig, úgyhogy nagyon jó kapcsolatom volt vele. Reis Ninának hívják. Ilyen oroszos név. Született 1866-ban, és 1944-ben halt meg, utólag, pár éve tudtam meg, hogy ki se jutott Auschwitzba. A vonaton halt meg. A nagyanyám jól beszélt szlovákul. Ő három nyelven beszélt, ahogy az a Felvidéken szokás, németül, szlovákul és magyarul. Engem is meg akart tanítani szlovákul, de én haszontalan voltam. Az anyám szülei elég szegények voltak, és gondok között éltek. Kistisztviselő volt a nagypapa, és rengeteg helyen laktak Békéscsabán. Mindig más helyre költözködtek. Nem is volt saját házuk. Vidéken általában mindenkinek van egy háza, de nekik nem volt. A nagyanyám csinált mindent, sőt, olyanokra emlékszem, hogy kifejezetten szegények voltunk akkor, mert az én későbbi osztálytársnőm, szegény, akit aztán szintén Auschwitzban meggyilkoltak, a felső lakásban lakott. Vidéken úgy van, hogy van egy utcára néző felső rész, és sokszor a telken belül volt egy másik ház, amit kiadtak. Na, a nagymamámék ott laktak együtt. És sokszor ezzel a volt osztálytársammal mi együtt játszottunk. Neki porcelánbabája volt, nekem pedig a nagymama egy olyan babát készített, amit gyújtósfából így összekötött és bebugyolált, aztán arcot rajzolt neki. De az neki jobban tetszett. Úgyhogy folyton el akarta kérni tőlem ezt a babát. Erre a történetre emlékszem.

Van egy megrendítő emlékem. A nagyapám öregkorára megvakult. A családban sajnos ez öröklődő dolog. Ez a glaukóma [zöldhályog], ma már tudják műteni, és az ember nem vakul meg. De azelőtt megvakultak, úgyhogy a nagyapámnak az édesanyja megvakult, azt én nem ismertem, Békésen lakott a gyerekeinél. Akkor megvakult a nagyapám is. Az édesanyámnak szintén volt ilyen rohama, de már akkor őt megműtötték Miskolcon. Úgyhogy ő is élete végéig jól látott ezzel a szemével. Akárcsak én. Sőt, én szemüveg nélkül tudok jól olvasni. Most arra emlékszem – nagyon megdöbbentő volt –, a nagyapám egyre rosszabbul látott, de ő elment segíteni édesapámnak az építkezéseken, amelyeket apám irányított. Szeretett volna valami hasznosat csinálni. Egyik nap, úgy novembertájt, más emberek hozták haza csuromvizesen. Mi közel laktunk a Köröshöz – élővízcsatorna, úgy hívták azt –, és ő rossz irányba ment. Mikor be kellett volna fordulnia, egyszerűen belépett a Körösbe, és elmerült. Kiabált, és az emberek mentek, és kimentették. Emlékszem, hogy borzasztó volt, mert tele volt ilyen őszi falevéllel, és vizesen – én még nem láttam így a nagyapámat. És akkor rájöttem, hogy ez egy komoly dolog már. Nyolcvanéves korában, amikor megvakult, vallásos lett. Nem érezte át ő ezt mélyen, kicsit az is volt benne, hogy ő nagyon szeretett engem, mert mikor az édesapám és édesanyám megházasodtak, apámnak nem volt még egyáltalán állása, akkor szerezte meg a diplomáját. És az anyám dolgozott, például elment Kassára házivarrónőnek. Na most ez alatt az idő alatt őnáluk laktam, két-három éves koromig. Ők olyanok voltak, mint a szülők, és engem különösen szeretett. A másik unokái Temesvárott laktak, azokkal nem találkozott. Az öcsém meg még nagyon fiatal volt. És ő büszke volt arra, hogy engem bemutathat a templomban mint az unokáját. Erre emlékszem. Úgyhogy sokszor végiggondolom, hogy inkább ezért kért meg nagyobb ünnepeken, hogy kísérjem el. Kiskoromban ő vitt engem sétálni a Ligetbe, ide-oda, mesélt, és kapcsolatteremtés volt az is, hogy megkért engem, hogy kísérjem el őt a templomba. Ennyiből állt a vallásossága.

Apámék kilencen voltak. Gizella, 1884-ben született, és meghalt 1963-ban. A Flóra, 1888-ban született, ő 1944-ben, Auschwitzban halt meg. Az Andor, ő volt a nyomdász, 1889-ben született, 1955-ben halt meg. Őt is elvitték, de ő visszajött. Tevan Ferenc, ő villamosmérnök, 1891-ben született, és 1944-ben halt meg Mauthausenben. Aztán az édesapám jön, Tevan Rezső. Ilona 1896-ben született, és 1944-ben halt meg, de nem tudjuk, hol. [Tevan Ilona férje, Kolozsváry Sándor volt, a kor neves festőművésze, aki a Tevan-kiadások amatőr sorozatát illusztrálta. Őt a nyilasok gyilkolták meg. – A szerk.] Erzsébet 1899-ben született, és 1945-ben, itt, Budapesten a kórházban halt meg a deportálás következményeiben, miután visszajött. A Tevan Margit, ő az ötvös. 1901-ben született, és 1978-ban halt meg. És Tevan László, a filozófus, 1903-ban született, és 1943-ban halt meg a Donnál, a doni áttörésnél munkaszolgálatosként lásd: Don-kanyar, a 2. magyar hadsereg pusztulása. Semmi pontosat nem tudunk róla. Illetve az az igazság, hogy a László olyan értelemben is filozófus volt, hogy foglalkozott a vallással, a hindu vallással.

Apám, Tevan Rezső 1893-ban született Békéscsabán. Építészmérnök volt. Én is ezért lettem építészmérnök. Békéscsabán volt a Rudolf nevű reálgimnázium [lásd: gimnázium és egyéb középiskolák], Rudolf trónörökösről nevezték el, most már Gyóni Gézáról van elnevezve. Ő a Csak egy éjszakára küldjétek el őket című versnek az írója. Felvilágosult békéscsabai költő volt, aki háborúellenes verseket írt. Többek között ez is az Gyóni Géza (Gyón, 1884 – Krasznojarszk, 1917) – költő, újságíró. Békéscsabán végezte a középiskolát. 1914-től honvéd gyalogosként szolgált az I. világháborúban, 1915-ben orosz hadifogságba esett, ott halt meg. A háború kezdetén – a körülzárt Przemyśl várában – a háborút dicsőítő verseket írt, majd az átélt szenvedések hatására eljutott az öldöklés teljes elutasításáig. – A szerk.. Apám ebben az iskolában végzett. Sokat nem tudok. Jó tanuló volt, azt tudom. És utána Budapestre ment, a Műegyetemre. Az egyetemen már egy haladó társaságba került be. Nyugatosok [lásd: „Nyugat”] közé. Volt egy íróbarátja is, Szántó György, akinek a Stradivari című könyvét én is olvastam, és aki a háborúban szerzett sebesülése miatt megvakult, és így lett építészből író [Szántó György (1893–1961) – művészi pályáját festőként kezdte, de egy első világháborús sebesülése miatt először az egyik, majd mindkét szemére megvakult. Főként történelmi és ifjúsági regényeket írt. – A szerk.]. Az első világháborúban a magyar–osztrák hadseregben szolgált [lásd: hadsereg az Osztrák–Magyar Monarchiában]. Érdekes módon megmaradt a háborús naplója. Még az egyetemi padból vitték be, a szigorlatát a háború után tette le, azt tudom. Egy tüdőlövést kapott Galíciában, súlyos tüdőlövése volt, ezért kapott egy vitézségi érmet, úgyhogy én akár egy mostani vitézi társaságnak is tagja lehetnék [Horthy Miklós kormányzó kezdeményezésére alapították 1920-ban a Vitézi rendet az I. világháborúban és a forradalmak alatt „a magyar állam védelmében kitűnt feddhetetlen honfitársak” jutalmazására. 1945-ben az Ideiglenes Nemzeti Kormány feloszlatta, de 1991 óta bejegyzett társadalmi szervezet. – A szerk.]. Aztán 1919-ben, én azt hiszem, egyszerűen úgy került a Vörös Hadseregbe, hogy bent szolgált, és akkor oda vezényelték [A Magyar Vörös Hadseregről, a Tanácsköztársaság  1919. március 22. és augusztus 6. fennállt fegyveres erejéről van szó. Lásd még: Tanácsköztársaság. – A szerk.]. Az édesapám a biatorbágyi hidat őrizte. Ez volt a feladata. Emlékszem, hogy hazahozott egy csomó újságot, 1919-es újságokat. El akarta tenni. Sokáig, egész 1944-ig el voltak dugva. A szekrény felett volt egy rejtekhely. Itt voltak, nem ékszer volt benne, hanem ezek a baloldali újságok, amiket aztán 1944-ben elégettünk. Kár, mert érdekes anyag volt.

Édesanyám eredetileg Deutsch Mária. Mikor én születtem, akkor már ő Domokos Mária volt. Született 1892-ben, Békéscsabán. Varrónő volt. Varrodája is volt, nagyon híres, Békéscsabán. Anyám és a testvérei az első világháború után magyarosíthattak, a nagyapám az maradt Deutsch végig. József volt a legidősebb fiú, ügyvéd volt. Nem voltak gyerekei. 86 éves volt, amikor meghalt. Az Andor bácsival volt egyidős, 1889 a születése éve, és 1975-ben halhatott meg. Valamikor akkor. A Mihály, a második fiú meghalt az első világháborúban, Udinében lásd: olasz front (1915–1918); isonzói harcok. Ott is van eltemetve. Az első világháborúban még erre valahogy ügyeltek. Kórházban halt meg, maláriában [Malária (mocsárláz, váltóláz) – szúnyogok terjesztette, magas lázzal és hidegrázással járó járványos betegség. – A szerk.]. Az akkor elég gyakori volt. Egyébként gépészmérnök volt. Domokos Irén, a Pirka néni férjhez ment Romániába, az első világháború alatt ismerkedett meg a férjével, aki szász volt, romániai szász. Őket én ritkán láttam, mert Temesváron laktak, és akkoriban nem volt szokás így utazgatni. Talán két alkalommal jártunk náluk Temesváron, és nem is emlékszem, hogy ők voltak-e nálunk. Itt van a családban egy érdekes dolog, az ő gyerekei közül a nagyobbik, az nálam egy évvel volt fiatalabb, és úgy hírlett róla, de soha nem tudtuk meg biztosan, hogy mivel az apja német volt – akit én nagyon szerettem, nagyon rendes tanárember volt –, ő beállt SS-katonának. Szóval ilyen is volt. De ez nem volt biztos.

A nagybácsim Domokos József, apám sógora, akivel jó barátságban volt, az is baloldali gondolkodású volt. Emigrálnia kellett Bécsbe, mert részt vett az 1919-es forradalomban lásd: Tanácsköztársaság Békéscsabán. Valami olyan beszédet tartott, amiért neki el kellett menekülnie. Utána ügyvéd volt, és kommunista elítélteket védett. Például ez egy olyan emlék bennem, hogy ott nyaralt nálunk, amikor a Sallait és Fürstöt kivégezték A biatorbágyi viadukt felrobbantását (1931. szeptember 13.) követően a magyar kormány statáriumot léptetett életbe. A vétkeseket a kommunista mozgalomban keresték. Ekkor tartóztatták le az illegális kommunista párt vezetőit, Sallai Imrét és Fürst Sándort, akiket halálra ítéltek és kivégeztek. – A szerk.. És akkor tudom, hogy bezárkózott a szobájába, és borzasztóan odavolt. Én akkor lehettem olyan tíz éves. Ezek azért mind benne maradnak a gyerekben, és emlékszik, amikor beszélnek erről. [Domokos Józsefről a következők olvashatók a „Magyar Életrajzi Lexikon”-ban: „Tagja volt a békéscsabai Nemzeti Tanácsnak (1918. nov.) és a helyi MSZDP vezetőségének, a Tanácsköztársaság idején a munkástanácsnak. 1920-ban Bécsbe emigrált. 1925-ben hazatért, 1927-től egyik alapítója, majd vezetőségi tagja volt a Szociáldemokrata Jogászok Szervezetének. A bíróság elé állított kommunisták és szocialisták védőügyvédje (1931–44). 1944-ben Mauthausenbe deportálták. Hazatérése után igazságügyi államtitkár, legfőbb államügyész; 1949-ben a Legfelsőbb Ügyészség vezetője lett. 1953. máj.-ban felmentését kérte; nyugdíjazták, majd 1954-ben visszahívták. 1954-től 1958-ig, nyugdíjazásáig a Legfelsőbb Bíróság elnöke. Szerepe volt az új igazságszolgáltatás kiépítésében, a háborús és népellenes bűnösök felelősségre vonásában, a koncepciós perekben elítéltek rehabilitációjában. – A szerk.]

Apám szülei nem örültek az anyámnak, de nem anyagiak miatt. Általában nem szóltak az anyagiak miatt soha. Ez nem olyan család volt. Hogy nem tetszett, azt onnan tudom, hogy írt is egy levelet, nem tudom, hogy a nagyanyám vagy a nagyapám, a legfiatalabb nagynénémnek, a Tevan Margitnak, aki életben maradt. Annak írt egy levelet, amiben megírta, hogy a Rezső az nemigen jár haza este, hanem a Manyánál, az az én édesanyám volt, ott van. Ebből érződik, hogy nem örültek, de tulajdonképpen nem volt különösebb ellentét azért. Anyám és apám között egy szerelmi házasság volt, ami abból adódott, hogy mind a kettőnek a világnézete azonos volt. A nagybácsim is részt vett az 1919-es forradalomban lásd: Tanácsköztársaság. Az édesapám meg szintén.

Édesanyám nagyon jól megvolt az édesapámmal. Az anyámnak nagyon jó ízlése volt mint varrónőnek is, nagyon sokáig varrt nekem. Már mérnök voltam, meg felnőtt asszony, és még mindig ő varrta nekem a ruhákat, nem is tudtam eléggé megbecsülni. Mert egy időben nem is érdekelt a ruha. Szóval abszolút nem érdekelt a divat, ha varrt valamit az anyám, annak mindig az lett a vége, hogy a próbánál kaptam egy pofont. De tulajdonképpen most utólag nagyon hálás vagyok neki, mert mindig valahogy úgy előre megérezte a divatot, és mindig jó holmikat varrt nekem. Még ma is megvannak, olyanokat. Nagyon tehetséges volt, ha ma élne, akkor biztos, valahol nagymenő divattervező lenne. Jól rajzolt, 1919-ben egy rövid ideig a Berény Róbertnél tanult rajzolni Berény Róbert (1887–1953), festő. Az első háború előtt az expresszionista Nyolcak csoportnak volt a tagja. A proletárdiktatúra „Fegyverbe!” című plakátjának alkotója. – A szerk.. Anyám érdekes egyéniség volt, sajnos kevesebb jött ki belőle, mint amennyi benne volt. Mikor apám üzletportálokat tervezett, anyám tanácsot adott neki színekben, színösszetételben. Szóval, jó kapcsolatuk volt. Tulajdonképpen én egy harmonikus családban nőttem föl. Csak jót mondhatok. Sokat volt a konyhában, szeretett sütni.

A szüleim 1921 májusában házasodtak össze. Ez is egy érdekes történet. A rabbit, aki engem hittanra tanított – hittant kellett tanulni, nem lehetett hittan nélkül iskolába járni –, Silberfeld Jakabnak hívták, egy jóindulatú ember volt, szegény, ő is Auschwitzban pusztult el. Mindig bosszantottuk őt, nagyon rosszak voltunk hittanórán, és akkor nekem olyanokat mondott időnként, hogy maga nem is törvényes gyerek, mert a szülei nem esküdtek. Nem volt egyházi esküvő, csak egy egész egyszerű, és nem is voltak sokan, úgy tudom. Ők is már felvilágosultak voltak. Sőt, mint anyámtól később megtudtam, ők együtt éltek már előtte is. Én 1922-ben születtem, Békéscsabán, az öcsém, György később, ő 1927-ben.

Édesapám a háború előtt kezdte el az egyetemet, és utána fejezte be. Akkor már csak a szigorlat és a diploma hiányzott. Eleinte nem nagyon lehetett Békéscsabán, valamilyen üzemben dolgozott. De hogy hol? Azt tudom, hogy nehezen indult be. Először is, ő tervezni szeretett volna, mint ahogy én is. Neki aztán megadatott egy-két lehetőség, 1929-ben ő tervezte, Bauhaus stílusban, Békéscsabán a Zsidó Aggok Házát. Vidéken ez az első ilyen épület. Aztán még egy pár házat a Körös-parton. Ekkor már építkezési vállalkozást nyitott. Nem olyan egyszerű egy építkezési vállalkozás, mert ahhoz kell egy csomó minden. Állványok, ez-az, bár sok minden akkor azért mégsem kellett, mert építőipari gépek nem voltak. A betont nem betonkeverő keverte, meg semmilyen gép nem volt akkor még az építőiparban, de azért kellett hozzá valami alaptőke. És akkor volt a Klebelsberg Kunónak ez a vidéki iskolaprogramja. Az édesapám sorban nyerte el ezeket, mert akkor pályázni kellett kiírásokon, és különböző helyeken épített iskolát. Kivitelezett. Ezeket nem ő tervezte, ezek egyszerű, nagyon egyszerű iskolák voltak. Komádiban, Csabacsűdön, még egy pár név úgy felrémlik nekem. Akkoriban télen az építőiparban nem dolgoztak, és ő olyankor elutazott Németországba. Talán kétszer vagy háromszor, ahogy emlékszem, 1933-ig, amíg lehetőség volt. Tehát csak télen volt ott. Tulajdonképpen erről nem nagyon beszélt nekem, csak tudom, hogy szakmai dolgok miatt ment ki. Kapcsolatban volt azokkal, akik a Bauhaust létrehozták [Bauhaus – a weimari képzőművészeti akadémia és az iparművészeti iskola egyesítésével Walter Gropius által létrehozott művészeti főiskola. – A szerk.]. De én erről konkrétan azért nem tudok, hogy kikkel volt ott kapcsolatban. Az tény, hogy ez a weimari Németország volt, amit azért a szociáldemokrata párt vezetett, ez is őt erre lökte. Az I. világháború után, 1919-ben Weimarban fogadták el a Német Köztársaság alkotmányát, ez volt a weimari köztársaság, amely 1933-ban Hitler hatalomra kerülésével szűnt meg. – A szerk.

Mi elszakadtunk valahogy a zsidó hitközségtől. Volt egy közösségünk, amiben nem volt az fontos, hogy valaki zsidó-e vagy keresztény. De zömében azért zsidók voltak. Nem véletlen, hogy az én barátom is, az élettársam is zsidó volt. Ott találkoztam vele ebben a társaságban. Érdekes és jellemző a családra, hogy a hitközségben semmiféle szerepet nem töltöttek be, viszont a családhoz fűződik az Auróra-kör. Ez egy művelődési kör volt, amelyik kiállításokat rendezett a Munkácsy Múzeumban, meg főleg koncerteket. Lejött Bartók, Basilides Mária, nagy személyiségek jöttek le, és rendszeresen, minden hónapban volt egy koncert Basilides Mária (1886–1946) – operaénekesnő (alt), 1915-től az Operaház tagja. Gyakran vállalta új művek bemutatását. Bartók Béla és Kodály Zoltán műveinek első, stílusteremtő előadója volt. – A szerk.. Egyszer, emlékszem, még a Berlini Filharmonikusok is játszottak. Ebben benne volt a Flórának Tevan Flóra, Tevan Rezső testvére, az interjúalany nagynénje. – A szerk. a férje, Révész Sándor, az is Reis volt. Ő alapította ezt az Auróra-kört [1913-ban – A szerk.], Gizellának Tevan Gizella, Tevan Rezső testvére, az interjúalany nagynénje. – A szerk. a férjével, akit Südi Ernőnek hívtak. De az apám is részt vett benne, apám zenekarban is játszott, hegedült.

Az az utca, ahol mi laktunk, az nem a városközpont volt, hanem inkább a város széle. Méghozzá Békéshez közel eső része. És tulajdonképpen a mi utcánkban – azt lehet mondani,   hogy – a lakosság zöme szlovák volt. Úgyhogy ha én kimentem, ott szlovák beszédet hallottam, mindegyik szomszédunk beszélt szlovákul. De voltak olyan öreg nénik, akik nem is tudtak magyarul, csak szlovákul. Ugye ez volt az ő anyanyelvük, és így beszélték meg a napi pletykákat. Sajnos, énrám kevés ragadt ebből, csak amikor már később a Tátrába jártam, akkor éreztem, hogy kezd visszajönni, amit gyerekkoromban hallottam. Egyébként tényleg a lakosság zöme szlovák volt, és talán ennek is volt köszönhető, hogy 1944-ben a zsidókkal szemben sokkal toleránsabbak voltak, mint általában.

A lakásunk tulajdonképpen nagy lakás volt, a Tevan nagyapa vette egy szőlővel együtt, azért volt hozzá nagy telek. Az apám megvette ezt a többi testvértől. Egy darabig a Tevan Andorral megfelezve éltek ott. Nálunk minden nyáron építkezés volt, arra emlékszem. A legkülönbözőbb dolgokat kísérletezte ki az apám. Nem parkett volt, hanem linóleumpadló, meg mást, ami csak új anyag létezett, azt mind kipróbálta ebben a lakásban. Eleinte három szoba volt, egyet nem fűtöttünk télen, a nagyszobát, a nappalit. És tulajdonképpen két szobában laktunk akkor. Aztán az édesapám azt csinálta, hogy volt egy rész, ami alá volt pincézve, annak ugye magasabb volt a padlószintje pár lépcsővel. Kibontatta, és két hálófülkét csinált maguknak. Tehát az édesanyámnak és édesapámnak ott volt az alvószobája. Tulajdonképpen összesen így volt két hálófülke, az apámé az egész pici volt, az csak alvásra volt elég. Volt nekem egy szobám, az öcsémnek egy, és volt egy közös nappali. Aztán konyha és egy óriási kamra. Mutattam is az unokámnak, hogy régen vidéken ugye mindent tároltunk, mert messze volt az üzlet. Mi a városközponttól elég messze laktunk. Amikor elköltözött onnan a Tevan Andor, akkor azt a részt az apám berendezte építési irodának. Sőt nekem még elválasztott egy sötétkamrát, mikor tanultam fényképészetet. Ez egy régi, százéves vályogház volt, belül aztán egy modern ház lett, de kívül egy régi, hosszú, ilyen százéves parasztháznak nevezik az ilyet, és mivel vastag vályogfalai voltak, az édesapám mindenütt ilyen beépített szekrényeket tett. Ő tudatosan a Bauhaus iskola mellett állt. Ilyen építészeti lapok jártak nekünk, ilyen stílusban rendezte be a mi lakásunkat, és az az érdekes, hogy egy vidéki grófnő vásárolta meg a háború után, akinek a villáját szintén kifosztották, és nem volt semmije, és őneki jó volt az, hogy nem kell bútort venni, mert a szekrények ott vannak, és ezért ma is ugyanúgy megvan a házunk belseje. Volt fürdőszoba, de mivel nem volt vízvezeték Békéscsabán, egy ilyen motorral kellett felszivattyúzni a vizet egy kútból, amelyik kinn, a Körös partján volt. Bonyolult dolog volt, de ez nem iható víz volt. Az iható vizet az artézi kútról hordtuk két kannával. Kezdetben fatüzelésű sparhelt volt a konyhában, később vettek egy villanytűzhelyt, mikor én már nagylány voltam. Hűtőgép nem volt, akkoriban még az nem létezett, hanem olyan volt, hogy a jeget betettük, ha jött a jeges. Nálunk volt háztartási alkalmazott majdnem mindig. És még jött anyukámnak segíteni egy mosónő is hetenként, ahogy a József Attila leírja. Egyébként ez a mosónő a Kulich Gyulának az anyja volt. Kulich Gyulát kivégezték. Először is elvitték valamelyik táborba, nem tudom, hova, és kivégezték. Az édesanyja járt hozzánk, és az érdekesség az volt, hogy úgy tudtuk meg, hogy a nagybácsim [Azaz: Domokos József. – A szerk.] elmondta, mert ő meg védte Kulich Gyulát, amikor lefogták Kulich Gyula (Békéscsaba, 1914 – Németország, 1945) – a kommunista ifjúsági mozgalom egyik vezetője, szabósegéd, a Kommunista Ifjúmunkás Szövetségben (KIMSZ) tevékenykedett. 1944. novemberében Dachauba hurcolták, ismeretlen helyen halt meg. – A szerk.]. De nagyon jóban voltunk a felszabadulás után is ezzel az asszonnyal. Oda is költözött egy részébe a háznak. A háztartási alkalmazott nálunk nagyon megbecsült volt, mindenféle szempontból. Az édesanyám a lelkivilágukkal is törődött. Volt egy fiatal nő, Rózsinak hívták, akinek gyereke született. De nem vette el a férfi, mert meghalt kint a fronton. És amíg terhes volt, az anyukám ott az utcában szerzett neki egy szobát. És ott én látogattam, vittem neki ennivalót. Tényleg, olyan emberséges módon bánt velük. Mikor Erdélyből jöttek, arra is emlékszem, azzal is jó kapcsolat volt.

Mikor édesapám az iskolákat építette, akkor még nem volt autóbuszjárat. Nehezen lehetett az építési helyszínre eljutni. Volt egy gazdag ortodox család, akiknek tervezett és fel is épített egy házat, autókereskedők voltak, Tótkomlóson cséplőgépet, traktort, ilyeneket árultak. Őtőlük vett egy Chevroletet. Még most is emlékszem rá, olyan volt, mint egy skatulya. Legtöbbször az apám vezette. Bár egy időben volt sofőr is, az is előttem van, az öcsém akkor egész kicsi lehetett, fürdették, és egyszer csak beállított ez a sofőr. Azt mondta az édesapámnak, mérnök úr, ne tessék megijedni, az autó egy hatméteres árok mélyén fekszik. Békésre mentek, de hogy hogy tudta azon a rövid tíz kilométeren bevezetni az autót az árokba, azt nem tudom. Mikor jött a konjunktúra, a háború előtt [lásd: győri program], akkor kezdett érezhetően jobban menni az édesapámnak ilyen dolgokban is. Mikor a németek elvitték ezt az autót, már nem tudom, hány éves volt a háború idején, akkor az apám nagyon nevetett, azt mondta: „Na! Akkor már rosszul áll a szénájuk, ha ez az autó is kell nekik.”

Apám főleg első világháborús könyveket szeretett, de azért olvasott mást is. Nálunk megvolt az összes orosz realista. Tolsztoj, Dosztojevszkij, Gogol, Turgenyev. Én, ha nem olvasom el fiatal koromban, akkor soha. Mert ma már nem biztos, hogy lenne türelmem egy „Háború és béké”-t végigolvasni. Vagy Dosztojevszkijnak a „Karamazov testvérek”-et. Zola is megvolt. Erre külön emlékszem, mert amikor a gettóba vittek minket, akkor a mi lakásunkba a békéscsabai Gestapo-főnök költözött be. Persze nem olvasni. De állítólag az apám hegedűjével hegedült. Elég hülyék voltunk, mert hegedűje és egy brácsája is volt, mind a kettőt otthagytuk. A Gestapo helyi főnöke egy szlovák fiú volt, Laczó Andrásnak hívták, egy gazdálkodónak volt a fia, de már régen a német náci párthoz tartozott, annyira, hogy még a Horthyék sem szívesen vették, és el kellett menekülnie Németországba. Latz Henrikre németesítette a nevét. Az apja ott élt, és amikor mi visszaérkeztünk, és semmink nem volt, anyám azt mondta, hogy menjünk el, mert biztos ott van minden az apjánál, aminthogy ott meg is találtuk a villanytűzhelyünket meg mit tudom én, mit. De a könyveinkből egy csomót eltüzelt. Apámnak volt egy Zola-sorozata, aminek egy ilyen fém Zola-plakett volt a borítóján. Azelőtt volt ilyen, hogy fémmel kombinálták a kötéseket. Azt nem tudta elégetni a kemencéjében, így kicibálta a lapokat belőle, és úgy égette el. A tetején láttam a könyvhalmaznak, itt van eldugva, a „Madame Curie” című könyv, a Curie írta az anyjáról, azt hiszem, a huszadik születésnapomra ezt vette nekem a barátom [Eve Curie: Madame Curie c. könyvéről van szó, melyet először a Révai jelentetett meg 1938-ban. – A szerk.]. Be is írtam a könyvbe. Ott akkor megtaláltam a halmazban. Nagyon kevés könyv maradt meg, nem volt érdemes kutatgatni, mert sáros volt, piszkos, ő nem is olvasásra használta.

Én nagyon szerettem Mikszáthot, azt a nagyanyámtól kaptam, az összes Mikszáthot. Eötvöst [József], azt is. Érdekes módon én Jókait soha nem szerettem. Most már inkább becsülöm. Most, hogy a Várkonyi filmeket rendezett belőle, valahogy érdekesebb. De akkoriban nem olvastam, csak a kötelező olvasmányt, ami az „Új földesúr” volt. Az új magyarok közül én nem ismertem Márait. Nekünk nem volt Máraink. Adyt ismertük. Sőt, én megkaptam, szintén a páromtól az „Európai Költők Antológiájá”-t, amit Faludy György szerkesztett [1938-ban jelent meg a Cserépfalvinál. – A szerk.]. Most megjelent újból, de nekem a legelső kiadás van meg. Azt is úgy őrzöm. Az úgy maradt meg, hogy én nagyon szerettem ezeket a verseket, és odaadtam az egyik rokonomnak, hogy őrizze meg. A Veres Pétertől, Illyéstől falukutató munkákat olvastam. A „Puszták népé”-t. Akkor ott volt a „Viharsarok” Féjától, az érdekes volt. Ezeket megvették, és aztán én azt olvashattam, amit akartam. Nem mondták soha, hogy én ezt olvassam el. Egy nagy könyvtár volt, és nem volt se diszkó, se tévé, az ember sokat olvasott akkor. Talán annak volt előnye azért, hogy nem volt tévé. Én néha késő éjszakákig olvastam. Ma is emlékszem, hogy Tolsztojnak a „Feltámadás”-át éjszaka olvastam, és hogy a szüleim ne lássák, hogy ég a villany, a paplan alatt olvastam lámpával.

Ilyen zsidók voltunk mi: disznót vágtunk majdnem minden évben. Ott nevelkedtek, sőt volt egy disznó, amelyiket én etettem egy időben, nem akartam otthon lenni, amikor levágják. Egyszer az apám disznóvágás közben jött haza, és azt látta, hogy a rajztábláit arra használták, hogy a kolbászkészítéshez a húst meg a szalonnát azon vágták! Úgyhogy abból nagy ribillió lett, arra emlékszem. Akkoriban volt csirke, pulyka, egy nagy kert volt. Az anyám tartotta az állatokat. Libánk is volt, tömtem is libát, szegényt. Le kellett nyomni a kukoricát, akkor én nem éreztem, hogy ez kínzás. Ez nekem természetes volt. Otthon, magunk vágtuk le a szárnyast.

Édesapám szociáldemokrata lásd: Szociáldemokrata Párt volt, de nem nagyon vett úgy részt a politikában. Utólag tudtam meg, hogy szemináriumokat tartott néha. Bent is van egy könyvben. Erről ő nem beszélt nekem, nem volt olyan. Annyiból tudtam erről, hogy mikor választások voltak, akkor ő segített. Ilyen is volt, hogy például aki később megyei párttitkár lett, azt mindig lefogták választások előtt, és egyszer, emlékszem, hogy nálunk aludt vagy nálunk bújt A rendőrség a választások előtt gyakran lefogta az ismert kommunista vezetőket, akárcsak a szélsőjobboldali pártok képviselőit. – A szerk..  De mindig a másik párt jött be, nem jött be a szociáldemokrata. Két újságot járattunk, a „Népszavá”-t és a „Magyar Nemzet”-et. A „Magyar Nemzet” nagyon jó volt.

A családom nagyon politikus volt. Mondtam, hogy az anyámék is így kerültek össze. Ha lejött a nagybácsim hozzánk Budapestről karácsonyi ünnepre, csak politikáról volt szó. Szokták kérdezni, hogy miért vagyok én ennyire érzékeny politikai dolgokra még ma is. Így nevelődtem gyerekkorom óta. Én tudtam, hogy mik történnek Németországban Hitler uralomra jutása után. Mindenről azonnal értesültünk. Az újvidéki vérengzésről is. Inkább csak ilyen apró dolgok vannak bennem, ami egy gyereket megragad. Biztosan nem akarták a felnőttek, hogy halljam, de én füleltem ott. Hogyan kínoztak meg embereket például, ilyen eszembe jut. Még a kínzás módja is, hogy hashajtót adtak be, és le és fel kellett járkálnia. Van egy Fellini-film, ahol egy szociáldemokratát a Mussolini emberei megkínoznak ugyanilyen módszerrel. Nem tudom mi a film címe, most nem jut eszembe!

A Klebelsberg Kunó egyszer járt Békéscsabán, amikor a leánylíceumot felavatták, mert az is többek között neki köszönhető. Előtte nem volt leánygimnázium lásd: leányiskolák. Én akkor még egy magániskolába jártam. Kerti iskolának hívták [„Kerti iskola” elnevezéssel működött a környéken – Újszegeden – egy iskolakísérlet, de az 1936-ban indult, itt nem erről van szó. – A szerk.]. Móra Ferenc támogatta erősen ezt az iskolát. Az ő tankönyvéből tanultunk, ami akkor nagy szó volt, mert színes volt, és a Móra-féle mesék voltak benne. Odajött a Klebelsberg Kunó, aki helytelenítette ezt az iskolát, már csak a szabad, liberális felfogása miatt is. De kíváncsi volt, hogy mit tudnak a gyerekek, és megkérdezte, hogy ki tud valami szavalatot. Én akkor első elemista voltam, és jelentkeztem, elszavaltam „A cinege cipőjé”-t. Móra Ferencnek van ez a nagyon szép verse. A szüleim mondták, hogy a Klebelsberg Kunó nagyon unta, mert egy kicsit hosszú volt, de én nem voltam hajlandó abbahagyni, végigmondtam a verset. Ez lehetett 1928-ban, hat éves lehettem. A haladó gondolkodású emberek gyerekei jártak ide. Például a Becsei nevű főorvosnak a fia is oda járt. Az első évfolyamban ketten voltunk akkor. Egy tanítónő volt, nekünk adott valami foglalkozást, és addig a többieknek magyarázott. Összevont évfolyamok voltak. Kis létszámú iskola volt. Fiúk-lányok, mindenki együtt voltunk. Az én osztálytársnőm később pedagógus lett. Most, amikor a hatvanéves érettségi találkozó volt – később a líceumba is együtt jártunk –, akkor én megkérdeztem őt, hogy mi volt az oka, hogy oda íratta az édesapja. Azt mondta, hogy ők nem szerették azt a gondolkodásmódot, ami akkor a Horthy-rendszerben eluralkodott. Az anyja egy festői ambíciókkal megáldott, kicsit művészlélek volt, és ez volt az oka. Ő keresztény lány volt. Volt később a líceumban egy nagyon jó fizikatanárnőnk, egy szerencsétlen, púpos, csúnya, vörös nő volt. Egy zsidó nő, aki Pestről Békéscsabára jött tanítani. 1944-ben elvitték, de előtte náluk lakott. Ők adtak ki neki szobát, szóval a gondolkodása az egész családnak nyilván ilyen volt.

Volt zsidó iskola Békéscsabán. Hogy miért nem írattak oda? Mert vallási iskola volt. Az öcsém, mikor megszűnt ez a Kerti iskola, akkor oda járt. Ő talán két évet járt a Kerti iskolába, és utána a zsidó iskolába ment.

Én 1933-tól 1940-ig jártam a líceumba [lásd: leányiskolák], ott érettségiztem. Megpróbáltam a műszaki egyetemet, beadtam, visszautasítottak. Nagyon édes volt a portás, amikor visszaadta az érettségi indexemet, azt mondta: „Jaj, de kár, hogy nem vették fel, mert egy bolgár nőt fölvettek, és nem lett volna egyedül.” Ő nem tudta, hogy én zsidó is vagyok, csak azt, hogy nő, mert nőket is csak bizonyos százalékban vettek föl [Tevan Zsófiát valóban kettős diszkrimináció érte: zsidó származása mellett nő mivolta is hátráltatta tanulmányaiban. Nők először csak az I. világháborút követő néhány évben folytathattak mérnöki tanulmányokat: azoknak a nőknek, akik az 1918/19-es forradalmak idején felvételt nyertek a műszaki egyetemre, engedélyezték tanulmányaik befejezését. 1927-ben azonban rendelet született, amely szerint nők nem folytathattak mérnöki, gépészmérnöki és vegyészmérnöki tanulmányokat a budapesti műegyetemen, de az Építészmérnöki Karra a hallgatók összes számának 5%-a erejéig vehettek fel nőket, ha nem volt elég férfi jelentkező. – A szerk.]. Aztán beadtam a Thököly úti Felső Építőipari Iskolába, most is létezik egy ilyen iskola [Eötvös József, majd Trefort Ágoston vallás- és közoktatásügyi miniszter munkássága nyomán alakult meg 1879-ben a középipartanoda, építészeti, gépészeti és vegyészeti szakcsoporttal. Az építészeti szakosztály építõmestereket, pallérokat és önálló munkára képes szakembereket képzett. 1898-ban a Középipartanodából kivált a Budapesti Magyar Királyi Állami Felsõ(építõ) Ipariskola (1901-től a Thököly úton működött). 1949-ben alakult az Ybl Miklós Építőipari Technikum, az 1963/64-es tanévtől kezdődően épült ki az érettségire alapozó, hároméves képzési idejű Felsőfokú Építőipari Technikum, melyet változatlan képzési céllal és rendszerrel 1972-ben főiskolai rangra emeltek, Ybl Miklós Építőipari Műszaki Főiskola névvel. – A szerk.]. Oda se vettek föl. Én ezt mind tudtam, csak végigpróbáltam. És akkor elmentem fényképészetet tanulni, le is vizsgáztam, fényképészsegéd lettem. Ezt a szakmát tanultam ki.

Az életemben nekem nagyon fontos, hogy ebben az időben volt egy élettársam Békéscsabán, egy szintén mérnök, Braun László. Nem fejezte be Brünnben a tanulmányait, mert a németek akkor jöttek be Hitler nyomására a nagyhatalmak müncheni konferenciája 1938. szeptember 30-án Németországnak ítélte Csehország németlakta területeit, ami a csehszlovák állam felbomlásához vezetett, és 1939. március 16-án a németek a maradék cseh államot is megszállták. Lásd még: Első Csehszlovák Köztársaság – A szerk.. Ő egy ortodox zsidó családból származó fiatalember volt. Tulajdonképpen nagyon jó kapcsolat alakult ki közöttünk mindenféleképpen. Boldog négy évet voltunk úgy, hogy nem volt közös lakásunk, de az én szüleim tudták, és ezért lehetőséget adtak arra, hogy…, szóval úgy, ahogy ma a fiatalok. De akkoriban az nem volt szokás. Úgyhogy az egy nagyon merész lépés volt mind a kettőnktől, de mi vállaltuk egymást. Nem volt neki keresete. Rádiószerelést tanult, egy darabig dolgozott, de 1943-ban behívták, és mint munkaszolgálatos halt meg. Én nagyon sokáig vártam vissza, és azért is, még az egyetemi éveim alatt is, azért is nem kötöttem sokáig házasságot. Még voltak mindig, akik még később jöttek vissza.

Nyaralni mindig ugyanoda jártunk, a két Körös, a Fehér- és Fekete-Körös összefolyásához, ahol a család több tagjának meg ennek a társaságnak, ami összefogott minket, az apám épített föl ilyen vert vályogból egy hosszú házat, amiben mindenkinek volt egy szobája. Ott nagyon jól éreztük magunkat. Érdekes, hogy ismert emberek is jártak oda le, Budapestről. Mert tudták, hogy ilyen haladó szellemű társaság. Itt azért zömében zsidók voltak együtt. Azok már olyan idők is voltak, hogy nem szívesen fogadtak zsidókat sehol. Tábortűz volt, énekelgettünk, szóval ezek nagyon jó emlékeink voltak. Amikor esős idő volt, akkor bementünk, barkochbáztunk, meg nem tudom, mindenféle játékot játszottunk. Ott ismerkedtem meg az élettársammal is.

Tánciskolába akkor jártam, azt hiszem, amikor már felsős voltam a líceumban. A tánciskola ott volt a tornateremben. Én egy nagyon kis növésű és vézna lány voltam, sokáig nem néztek nőnek, és ez nekem nagyon fájt is, mert a többieknek már udvaroltak. Sokszor nem is kértek fel táncolni. Aztán volt a tánciskolában az egyik osztálytársamnak a bátyja, aki szintén kis növésű fiú volt, és az mégis felkért táncolni, és haza is kísért, akkor az nagyon jó dolog volt. Lehettem olyan 14-15 éves. Mozi volt, de nem volt szabad járni. Engedélyt kellett kérni az osztályfőnöktől, aki egy kiugrott apáca volt. A „Halálos tavasz”-hoz  nem mertünk engedélyt kérni, az egyik osztálytársnőmmel úgy mentünk el, hogy az első sorba vettünk jegyet, hogy ne lássanak meg [A „Halálos tavasz”1939-ben készült Zilahy Lajos regénye nyomán Kalmár László rendezésében Karády Katalinnal a női főszerepben. – A szerk.]. És így néztük végig a filmet a Csaba moziban, erre emlékszem. Otthon volt rádiónk. Mikortól, nem tudom. De mikor már nagyobb lány lettem, akkor elég jó rádiónk volt, tudtuk fogni Londont meg Moszkvát is, ami akkor lényeges volt, hogy ezeket hallgassuk [Mindkét helyen voltak magyar adások: a hitleri propagandát ellensúlyozta a BBC többnyelvű – és a célterületeken általában betiltott – világszolgálata (World Service). A magyar nyelvű adás a második világháború kitörése után 4 nappal szólalt meg először. Moszkvában 1941. szeptember 29-én kezdte meg adását a Kossuth Rádió, a KMP Külföldi Bizottsága által, a szovjet kormány támogatásával szervezett titkos, klandesztin adó. Az antifasiszta, háborúellenes adó egy ideig Baskíria fővárosából, Ufából szólt (mellette működött még a Moszkvai Rádió magyar adása is). 1942-től ismét Moszkvából ment az adás, 1945. április 4-i megszűnéséig. – A szerk.]. Ami nekem jó volt, hogy én szerettem a komolyzenét, és sokszor hallgattam a rádióban, amikor ilyen volt. Én nem éreztem unalmasnak a gyerekkoromat, különösen azért, mert tizenhét éves voltam, amikor összeismerkedtem az élettársammal, és akkor aztán együtt jártunk mindenhova.

Mikor először voltam a templomban, féltem. Megmondom, hogy mitől. A Tórát becsavarták, és végigvitték, és meg kellett csókolnia mindenkinek. Amikor ott közelítettek, borzasztóan féltem. Valahogy az volt az érzésem, hogy abban biztosan van valami. Egyébként is én egy nagyon félős valaki voltam, azt hittem, hogy abban valami halott vagy nem tudom, mi van. Úgyhogy inkább csak félelem töltött el. Ráadásul megengedték, hogy én a férfiak között üljek, pedig azt nem lett volna szabad. De én még kislány voltam akkor, nyolc éves lehettem, ez akkor volt, amikor a nagyapámat kísérgettem. Csak a nagyünnepeken mentünk. Hanuka ünnepre emlékszem. Nem kapott meg engem ez az egész. Csak a zászlókra emlékszem, fehér-kék zászlókra. De ez is csak most beugrott. Mert egyébként nem emlékszem. Azért nagy szomorúsággal töltött el, amikor a második férjemmel voltunk lenn, Békéscsabán, és meg akartam mutatni a templomot. Nem találtam. Nem azért, mert én nem találtam, hanem mert átalakították. Bútorraktár lett belőle. Pedig egy szép templom volt. Olyan mór stílusban. Ott egy nagyon vonalas pártvezetés volt.

Az élettársam, Braun László vallásos ortodox családból származott. Amikor bemutatott a szüleinek, meghívtak egy ilyen, azt hiszem, széderestre, ahol halat esznek [A széderestén nem esznek halat, halat (gefilte fis) a péntek esti vacsorán szokás fogyasztani. Lásd még: halételek; szombat. – A szerk.. Nagyon kellemes volt, csak tudom, hogy ott is, egyik gyerek sem volt már vallásos. Négy testvér volt, kettő maradt életben, ma már csak egy él, azzal tartom is a kapcsolatot. Ő volt a legfiatalabb, és neki kellett csinálni azt, mikor a legkisebb gyerek felteszi a kérdéseket, és akkor válaszolnak. lásd: má nistáná Ott egy ilyen hagyományos esten [azaz széderestén] vettem részt. Ez is csak nekem annyiból volt érdekes, hogy az élettársamnak a szüleit és a családját megismertem [A Braun családról szól a „Mozgó Világ” folyóirat 2000. szeptemberi számában „Braun-malom” címmel megjelent interjú, amelyet Vágréti László az egyik Braun testvérrel készített. – A szerk.]. Őt se kötötte semmi a valláshoz.

A családunk egyáltalán nem volt vallásos. Ilyen asszimilálódó család volt. Már a Tevan nagyapám se tartotta a vallását. De a dédnagyapám, Tevan József az még vallásos volt. És az meg is rótta a fiát, hogy meglátod, te csak a vallásnak azt a részét nem tartod be, hogy kóser koszt, de a te gyerekeid azok már gajokhoz fognak menni. Ez meg is történt.

Az édesapám, ugye, sok mindenkinek épített, ortodox zsidóknak is, ha kérték valamire. Az egyik ilyen megrendelője szemrehányást tett neki, hogy láttuk a maga lányát biciklizni Jom Kipurkor – az a böjtnap –, ott biciklizett nem messze a templomunktól. Mert a zsidó templom meg az ortodox templom egymással szemben volt. És erre mondta az édesapám, hogy igen, nagyon nagy bűn, amit csinált a lányom, de hát aki látta, az is bűnt követett el vele, mert bent kellett volna lennie a templomban egész nap. Mindig kifogta, ha ilyen szemrehányásokat kapott.

Az ortodox templom elég nagy volt, az egy nagy hitközség volt. Emlékszem, hogy volt egy nagyon gazdag ortodox család, már nem tudom, mivel foglalkoztak Apám valamit épített nekik, és akkor bemutatta az ő könyvtárát ez az ortodox ember, nagyon szép Hagada- gyűjteménye volt. Apám azt mondta, elvisz engem, mert érdemes megnézni. De nem figyelmeztetett előre, hogy ne nyújtsak kezet. Egy nagyon kellemetlen szituáció jött létre. Ez egy nagyon szép ember volt. Úgy nézett ki, mint egy Jézus! Szakállas, magas, nálam nem sokkal idősebb férfi volt, és én nyújtottam a kezemet, mert édesapám bemutatott, hogy a lányom, és ő így hátra tette a kezét. Zavartan néztem az apámra, akivel jól megértettük egymást, egy szemvillantása volt, és utána elmondta, hogy nem tudhatja, mikor vagy te tisztátalan. Úgyhogy ezek voltak azok a dolgok, amik számomra inkább nevetségesek voltak. Ez az ősi dolgokhoz való ragaszkodás.

Az ünnepeket nem tartottuk. Sőt a Südi család, a legidősebb Tevan lánynak a családja, azok karácsonyt tartottak. És nekem annyira megtetszett a karácsonyfa, hogy rossz néven vettem, hogy nálunk nincs karácsonyfa. Amikor nagylány lettem, olyan tíz éves lehettem, akkor én csináltam karácsonyfát! De anyám nem szerette, mindig azt mondta, hogy hagyd azt a német ünnepséget! De nem azért, mert vallásos volt, hanem mert…, szóval azt mondta, egy zsidó azért ne állítson karácsonyfát! De én fölállítottam, feldíszítettem egy karácsonyfát. És végül a szüleim ezt tolerálták, akkor már ajándékozás is volt. Persze nem olyan nagy ajándékok, mint ma. Hát én borzasztó boldog voltam, mert egyik alkalommal édesapámtól egy kétkötetes, akkor nagyon jó művészettörténet-könyvet kaptam. Baráth–Takács, azt hiszem, ez volt a szerzőpáros. És azóta tartottuk a karácsonyt.

A keresztény húsvétot is megtartottuk. Én vártam a locsolókat. Már mondtam, hogy egy nagyon vézna, kis sovány lány voltam, és későn fejlődtem. Mindig két vagy három évvel fiatalabbnak néztek. És nekem nagyon fontos volt az, hogy jöjjenek locsolók. Különösen anyám barátnőjének a fiát vártam volna. Egy jóképű fiú volt. Nem is tudom, hogy a végén eljött-e vagy sem, egy vagy két locsoló jött el. De én azért készültem, nagyon szerettem a tojásfestést. Volt az a Malonyay-féle magyar művészet, főleg Erdéllyel foglalkozott, és abból vettem a mintákat [Malonyay Dezső (1866–1916) író, művészettörténész ötkötetes munkájáról (A magyar Nép Művészete, I–V., Bp., 1907–1922) van szó, amelynek I. kötete „A kalotaszegi magyar nép művészete”, II. kötete „A székelyföldi, a csángó és a torockói magyar nép művészete” címet viseli. – A szerk.]. Ha nem is a legszebb dolog, mert volt úgy, hogy megfestettem a tojást, és a minta az így ki volt kaparva, de azért elég jól sikerültek. Úgyhogy ennyi volt a húsvét.

Az antiszemitizmus nem volt jellemző Békéscsabán. Biztos volt, de nem volt jellemző [Randolph L. Braham – hivatkozva Lévai Jenő „Szürke könyv”-ére – a következőt írja: „A német megszállás előtt a helyi hatóságok és a zsidó közösség közti viszony nyilván egész jó volt, mert a polgármestert, dr. Jánossy Gyulát és néhány rendőrtisztet … Ferenczy azzal vádolta, hogy védik a zsidóság érdekeit” (A magyar Holocaust, Budapest, Gondolat/Wilmington, Blackburn International Inc., é. n. /1988/, 54. oldal). – A szerk.]. Azt tudom, hogy édesapám, akinek versenytárgyalásokon kellett részt vennie, hogy egy-egy munkát megnyerjen, mint zsidó vállalkozó hátrányos helyzetben volt, pláne az első zsidótörvény után, de már az előtt is [lásd: zsidótörvények Magyarországon]. Ezt beszélgetésekből tudom, amit egy gyerek hall a szülők közötti beszélgetésből.

Egyértelműen azért nem mondanám ki, hogy a szlovákok között nem volt antiszemitizmus. Itt van például az a Latz Henrik, akiről beszéltem. Aztán az osztályfőnököm a líceumban tényleg egy jó tanárnő volt, nem volt kifogásom ellene, de egy buta pedagógus volt, egy kiugrott apáca, és ővele fordult elő az, hogy engem látott zsidó fiúkkal sétálni a korzón, Békéscsabán. És másnap felhívott, nem felelni, csak egyszerűen leszidott, hogy „taknyos zsidó kölykökkel sétál az utcán!”. Nagyon föl voltam háborodva ezen. De nem szólhattam semmit, ez 1939-ben volt. És fel se hívott felelni engem, csak a végén. Az a szerencse, hogy magyart tanított, magyar irodalmat, én meg szerettem és tudtam. Az egész osztály akkor nekem drukkolt, hogy sikerüljön az a magyar felelet. Szóval volt antiszemitizmus, de nem olyan mérvű, mint más városokban, mert Békéscsaba szlovák város volt, és a békéscsabai szlovákok azért megértők voltak.

Az Anschluss idején már nagyobb voltam. És jobban kapcsoltam az ilyenekre. Akkor merült fel az, hogy menjünk-e ki Magyarországról. Apám felvetette, hogy Angliába lehetne menni. De annyira rögtön tiltakoztam, annyira úgy éreztem, hogy én magyar vagyok, nem tudnék egy más kultúrába beilleszkedni. Néha még lelkiismeret-furdalásom van most is, de nyilván nem csak azért nem mentek ki, sok minden oka lehetett annak. De el is vetették ezt a kérdést, többet nem merült föl.

Apám is, anyám is, mindenki állandóan politizált. És engem is bevontak ebbe. Úgyhogy mindenről tudtam. Talán annak is köszönhető, hogy én végül úgy határoztam, hogy megszököm a gettóból, mert ezeket a dolgokat sokkal inkább felfogtam, mint a velem egyidős lányok meg fiúk. Én emlékszem, mikor 1939-ben lerohanták Lengyelországot, akkor már én együtt jártam azzal az én nagy szerelmemmel, és a nagytemplom előtt mentünk. És ami egyáltalán soha nem volt szokásom, mert nem egy olyan ember vagyok, aki ki tudja mutatni az érzelmeit, de sírva fakadtam. Azt mondtam, hogy ez borzasztó, és hidd el, ennek a végét mi nem fogjuk megélni! Éreztem és tudtam, hogy ez nagyon súlyos dolog, ami most történik. Valamire emlékszem még. Az újvidéki vérengzésre. Akkor otthon volt az édesapám, mert egy menekült jött hozzánk, tőle tudtuk meg először, hogy mi történt, mert a magyar újságok nem írtak róla. 

Egyáltalán nem örültem a visszacsatolásoknak [lásd: első bécsi döntés; Kárpátalja megszállása; második bécsi döntés]. Azért elég furcsa az én viszonyom az egész Trianonhoz [lásd: trianoni békeszerződés], mert azért a legtöbb osztálytársnőm, még a zsidók is olyan nagyon komolyan vették azt, hogy mindennap mi úgy kezdtük a napot, hogy „Hiszek egy Istenben, hiszek egy hazában, hiszek Magyarország feltámadásában” [lásd: „Magyar Hiszekegy”]. Énnekem egyáltalán nem volt ilyen élményem. Először is, az unokatestvéreim Temesvárott éltek, a nagynéném egy szász embernek volt a felesége, aki egy nagyon rendes tanárember volt. Nagyon ritkán mentünk hozzájuk, talán két alkalomra emlékszem, pedig nem volt Temesvár messze Békéscsabától. De valahogy akkor nem volt szokás az utazás. De én nem éreztem semmiféle gyűlöletet, se románokkal, se szlovákokkal szemben. Nem örültem a bécsi döntésnek, mert nem érdekelt a Horthy Magyarországa. Nem tudtam azonosulni azzal a rendszerrel. Úgyhogy nem volt bennem egy csöppnyi nacionalizmus sem, és ez megmaradt egész életemben. Ma is gyűlöletes számomra a nacionalizmus minden formája. Például utoljára most, egy nagyon jó barátnőm, aki osztálytársnőm is volt ott, Békéscsabán, az nagyon rosszallotta, hogy én Jordániába megyek zsidó létemre. Mondtam neki, micsoda hülyeség! Én azért megyek, mert ott meg akarom nézni főleg ezt a Petrát, meg van egy pár dolog, ami érdekel [A jordániai Petra a nabateusok királyságának fővárosa, melyet 4000 évvel ezelőtt egy nehezen megközelíthető szurdokban a sziklákba faragtak. – A szerk.]. Szóval, én nem érzem azt, hogy azért, mert valaki arab, azt gyűlölni kell. És semmi ilyen gyűlölet soha nem volt bennem. A románok ellen meg pláne, mert az unokatestvéreim román állampolgárok voltak, az más, hogy Ceauşescuról megvolt a véleményem. Egyébként, mondom, semmiféle rossz érzés soha nem volt bennem. Senkivel szemben, azért, mert arab meg román meg szlovák. Szlovák környezetben nőttem föl.

Eljöttem érettségi után Budapestre, és el akartam helyezkedni mint fényképészsegéd. A szerződést majdnem aláírtuk a Fotó Angelónál, egy híres fényképész volt [Angelo (Funk Pál, 1894–1974) fényképész és fotóművész, fotóművészeti szakíró, fotói 1920-tól szerepeltek a hazai és nemzetközi kiállításokon. – A szerk.]. A vallást is be kellett írni. Sajnos, egész megdöbbent: „Akkor nem tudom alkalmazni!” – mondta. 1940-ben érettségiztem, ez 1941-ben vagy 1942-ben volt. Utána visszamentem Békéscsabára.

Egymás után jöttek a zsidótörvények [lásd: zsidótörvények Magyarországon]. Egyre jobban megfosztottak mindentől, szép lassan. A rádiónkat elvitték Csak a német megszállás után, a Sztójay-kormány rendelete értelmében kellett beszolgáltatniuk a zsidóknak a rádióikat, 1944-ben. – A szerk.. De én tulajdonképpen még akkor nem is éreztem olyan nagyon meg, mert nem is tudom pontosan, hogy mi volt az első meg a második zsidótörvényben. Érdekes, hogy annak ellenére, hogy én elmondtam, hogy soha vallásosak nem voltunk, eszünkbe nem jutott, hogy kitérjünk, hogy így meneküljünk meg. Nem! Mintha ez nem is lett volna téma. Szóval zsidónak vallottuk magunkat, és a nürnbergi törvények szerint természetesen zsidók voltunk. De nem emlékszem már rájuk. Ilyen szempontból nem érintett. Akkor érintett minket, amikor apámat behívták munkaszolgálatra, többször is 1943-tól. Ez teljesen váratlan dolog volt. Tudom, hogy Munkácson, a Felvidéken volt munkaszolgálatban, már a visszakapott területeken [lásd: Kárpátalja megszállása]. Ott volt valahol munkaszolgálatos, a Kárpátokban, utat építettek, de egy rövid ideig. Aztán hazajött, aztán volt, hogy újból behívták. Ott fosztották meg a rangjától, az első világháborúban főhadnagy volt. Nagyon jó humorérzéke volt az édesapámnak, és csak nevetni tudott. Nem érdekelte, hogy megfosztották a rangjától. Apám háborúellenes volt. Nekem olyan könyveket adott kezembe, mint a Remarque könyvét, a „Nyugaton a helyzet változatlan”-t. Aztán kaptam egy könyvet egyszer tőle Bécsből, amire én nagyon büszke voltam, mert több oldala hiányzott, ki volt cenzúrázva. Nem tudom már, mi volt a címe. Háborúellenes volt, azt tudom, erősen háborúellenes, és azzal foglalkozott, hogy hány millió ember halt meg az első világháborúban. Szóval, az édesapám következetesen a háború ellen volt. Abszolút nem érdekelte őt, hogy neki vitézségi érme van. Életvidám és nagyon jó humorú ember volt. Tudom, hogy egyszer, amikor hazaengedték a munkaszolgálatból, akkor úgy kaptuk a sürgönyt, hogy az volt aláírva: Svejk. Mert egyik kedvenc olvasmánya volt a Svejk.

Mivel apámat már behívták elég gyakran, én vezettem az építési vállalatot. Annak ellenére, hogy nem értettem semennyit hozzá. Nagyon nehéz volt, mert sokszor bérfizetéskor nem volt miből fizetni. És néha elsírtam magam, ezek komoly nehézségek voltak. De hát azért végigcsináltuk. Viszont az a jó származott belőle, hogy mivel az édesapámnak valamelyik bankkal kellett kapcsolata legyen, a Magyar–Olasz Bankkal voltunk szerződésben, ott ismertek minket. Mikor bevittek minket a gettóba – énnekem volt gyakorlati érzékem, édesanyám az nem volt ilyen, nem is intézett ő soha ilyen dolgokat –, én bementem a bankba, és úgy emlékszem, hogy 11 ezer pengőt vettem föl hitelbe, ami nagyon nagy pénz volt. Tudtam, ha meg akarunk szökni, nekünk fog kelleni a pénz. És olyan rendesek voltak, annak ellenére, hogy tudták már akkor, hogy a gettóban lakunk, ideadták a 11 ezret. Anyám valami tíz tojással fizette ki a háború után ezt a hitelt!

Állandóan hallgattuk a Moszkvát és az angol rádiót, ez a kettő volt, amit hallgattunk. És azokból értesültünk azért a háborús hírekről. És pont 1943-ban volt, hogy elvitték az én élettársamat, Braun Lászlót. Püspökladány felé vagonírozták be őket 1943 januárjában, amikor volt a doni áttörés [lásd: Don-kanyar]. Akkor én odamentem búcsúztatni, és arra akartam rábeszélni, hogy szökjünk meg. Ő azt mondta, hogy ez már nem tarthat soká, mert olyan vereséget szenvedtek a németek. És ebben sajnos nekem lett igazam, mert még elhúzódott annyira hosszan, hogy még megölhettek sok mindenkit a szeretteink közül. Ő hazaküldte nekem egy keretlegénnyel az általa írt naplót. Ez egy rendes keretlegény volt, volt azokban is rendes. Ajtós faluban lakott, amit Dürerről neveztek el, ott Gyula mellett, oda kellett mennem [Tevan Zsófia arra utal, hogy Albrecht Dürer apja, id. Albert Dürer a Gyulához tartozó Ajtós pusztán született, és innen vándorolt ki Nürnbergbe. – A szerk.]. Meg csomagot is küldtem, amit átadott neki. Megírta, hogy megkapta. De ők nagyon nehéz helyzetben voltak. 1943-ban a doni áttörés után vitték ki őket az országból, és átadták a német parancsnokságnak. Úgyhogy német SS-őrök voltak, akik vigyáztak rájuk, és a szmolenszki erdőben tőzeget kellett kitermelniük. Később átkerültek magyar parancsnokság alá, és akkor tudtunk levelezni, illetve akkor küldte el a naplóját. A naplójában tulajdonképpen nagyon kevés a személyes dolog, de érdekes részletek vannak. Nem tudom ma már elolvasni. Nagyítóval is próbáltam. Tulajdonképpen akkor már állandó kapcsolatot tudtam tartani vele. Levelek is vannak tőle. Aztán valahol eltűnt az egész század. Nem is tudom, mi történhetett velük Valahol a Pripjaty- mocsaraknál, ahol most a csernobili erőmű van, ott tűntek el. Az utolsó levelet onnan írta, a Pripjaty folyótól [Pripjaty-mocsarak – Európa legnagyobb mocsárvidéke Dél-Belorusszia és Észak-Ukrajna területén. – A szerk.].

1944. március 19-én lásd: Magyarország német megszállása Budapesten letartóztatták a nagybácsimat, Domokos Józsefet. A nagynéném felhívott, és telefonon tudomásunkra hozta. Mi sejtettük, hogy akkor édesapámat is el fogják vinni mint baloldalit. És ő, akinek olyan sok tapasztalata volt a háborúban meg mindenben, helytelenül határozott. Mert ha Budapestre megy, ott talán megszökhetett volna, mint ahogy én is végigéltem. De ő Kondorosra ment a testvéréhez, akinek a férje ott ügyvéd volt, és azt gondolta, hogy ez egy elbújási lehetőség. Holott Kondoros az egy kis porfészek volt, ott nem lehetett elbújni. Én elmentem egy hét után, hogy meglátogassam őt biciklin, az huszonöt kilométer. Emlékszem, hogy ilyen havas eső esett, és akkor jöttek – március vége felé lehetett, március 30. körül –, akkor jöttek a német tankok a főútvonalon Budapestről, velem szemben. Úgyhogy addig nem is jöttek, mert Budapesten próbáltak előbb rendet csinálni a maguk módján, aztán jöttek le Békéscsabára. És azt a helytelen következtetést vontuk le, hogy mivel nem keresték az édesapámat április elejéig, akkor ő visszajöhet. Akkor jöttek érte, áprilisban. Összeszedték őket, és először a békéscsabai kis börtönbe vitték, az nem volt egy komoly dolog. Oda bevihettünk ennivalót, látogatni mentünk, beszélgetni. Egy hétig tartott talán, és onnan az egyik nap aztán már a németek vitték el Debrecenbe. Debrecenből került Bécsbe.

Áprilisban tulajdonképpen már semmink nem volt, semmink. Először azt mondták, hogy költözzenek össze a zsidók, olyanok, akik főútvonalon laktak. Tevan Andornak nem volt saját lakháza, csak egy bérlakása volt, de az a főútvonalon volt, úgyhogy ők odaköltöztek hozzánk, arra emlékszem. De rövid ideig, mert alig voltak ott. A németek ügyesen csinálták, mindig csak kicsit vettek el. De mindig többet. Ugye, Auschwitzban aztán mindentől megfosztották őket. De előbb akkor odajöttek hozzánk a rokonaink, akkor egy hetet, két hetet éltünk együtt. Aztán be kellett költözni a békéscsabai gettóba, azt a részt jelölték ki, mint Budapesten, ahol amúgy is sok zsidó lakott. Én akkor mentem a lengyel barátnőmhöz lakni az anyámmal és az öcsémmel együtt. Azt hiszem, ezeket kiplakatírozták, plakátok voltak, és azok alapján tudtuk meg, hova lehet menni. A sárga csillagot is plakáton adták tudomásunkra. Jellemző, hogy anyukám, mivel varrónő volt a szakmája, a csillagot is olyan szépen csinálta meg nekünk. Szóval nem akárhogyan, hanem szépen! Nekem egy viharkabátom volt, és azon hordtam a csillagot. Én valahogy azt éreztem, hogy szégyelljék magukat azok, akik ezt elrendelték. Egy ilyen fordított érzés volt bennem. Nekem mint családfenntartónak megengedték, hogy a gettóból két órát kimehessek naponta. Nem mondták, miért, csak megvolt a lehetőség rá. Nem is mindig éltem vele. Nem olyan sokáig voltunk ott. Ezek az idők érdekes módon nekem olyan furcsán összezsugorodtak a későbbiekben, mikor rájuk gondoltam. Most volt a hatvanadik évforduló, és én nem akartam elhinni, hogy a békéscsabai gettót csak június 25-én vitték el. Én úgy emlékeztem, ahogy odaköltöztünk, már májusban elvitték. Holott tény, hogy júniusban vitték el. Úgyhogy erről az időről azért nem tudok beszélni, mert mindig úgy érzem, mintha kevesebb lett volna. Sűrítve történtek a dolgok. És ez nem elhúzza az időt, hanem inkább összevonja.

Az édesapámnak volt egy nagyon jó barátja, egy vízvezeték-szerelő, aki szintén szociáldemokrata volt. Ő overallban, vízvezeték-szerelői szerszámokkal bejött hozzánk, a gettóba. Hozott nekünk ilyen biankó személyi igazolványt, ami nem volt fényképes, csak egy ilyen két lapból álló igazolvány volt. És azt mondta, hogy töltsük ki lehetőleg létező személyre. Én már akkor elhatároztam egyébként, hogy megszökök. Ez az irat csak egy nagyon nagy segítség volt, és egy lökés, mert egyszerűen azt mondtam, hogy én nem hagyom magam kivinni ebből az országból. Mert akkor teljesen bizonytalan lesz az életem. Azt gondoltam, hogy elindulok az oroszok irányába Románia felé. Mondjuk, nem volt olyan rossz az elgondolás, de nem biztos, hogy akkor megmenekültem volna papír meg minden nélkül. Pontosan Nagyvárad felé akartam menni. És ezt meg is kérdeztem a nagybácsimtól, aki tagja volt a Zsidó Tanácsnak. Mert a németek nagyon ügyesen, a zsidókkal, saját magukkal intézték el, intéztették el a deportálásokat, egészen addig, amíg bevagonírozták őket. Ott már ugye nem volt mese, nem számított, hogy valaki a Zsidó Tanács tagja. Én elmentem hozzá, és azt mondtam, elhatároztam, hogy megszökök. Mi az ő véleménye? Nem volt senki más a családban, akihez fordulhattam volna. Azt mondta, ezt okosan teszed, de vigyed a lányomat is! A lánya egy évvel idősebb volt, mint én. Na és így történt, hogy ezeket a biankó lapokat kitöltöttük a sógornőmmel – aki nyomdában dolgozott, és szintén még kijárhatott emiatt – a Tevan nyomda dolgozónőinek a nevével, hasonló korúakkal. Így lettem én Kis Erzsébet. Az anyámat és az öcsémet is én szöktettem meg ilyenformán. Ezt a vízvezeték-szerelőt, aki bejött, Hankó Mátyásnak hívták, és nem csak engem, nagyon sok zsidót mentett meg. Ő volt az első, aki megkapta a Jad Vasem kitüntetést, mert egy Izraelben élő békéscsabai intézte el neki, akkor, amikor még itt a Kádár-korszakban ez nem létezett [Az „Egység” című folyóirat 13. számában (1993. június) közölt tudósítás szerint Hankó Mátyás és neje 1993-ban nyerték el „A világ jámborai” címet. – A szerk.]. De tény, hogy nagyon sokan voltak, akik segítettek. Sőt, a későbbiekben még inkább, amikor hallották, hogy elvitték a gettót.

Az élettársam szüleit meg a nővérét az egyik alkalmazottjuk –  nekik malmuk volt –, egy molnár elvitte Jaminába, az Békéscsabának egy ilyen munkásnegyede, sajnos lebuktak, és lefogták őket. Különvonaton vitték Auschwitzba őket sokkal később, nem is tudom, augusztusban vagy mikor. A nővérének felajánlotta az a magyar rendőr, aki kísérte őket, hogy nem néz oda, szökjön meg. De nem akarta a szüleit otthagyni. Szóval mikor kitöltöttük a papírokat, a Hankó visszajött, elvitte a neveket, és kikérte a keresztleveleit ezeknek a személyeknek. Tehát nekem nemcsak személyi igazolványom volt, hanem egy születési bizonyítványom is, amin ott volt, hogy anyja, apja, és evangélikusnak született. Teljesen komplett. Ennél jobb papír nem lehetett, mert más igazolvány akkor nem volt az országban. Ezzel úgy gondoltuk, hogy följövünk Budapestre. Mindenkit, akivel találkoztam akkoriban a gettóban, mindenkit próbáltam rábeszélni, hogy szökjenek meg. Sajnos az emberek nem hitték. Elhitték azt, amit a németek mondtak, hogy munkára viszik őket. Számomra ez volt a furcsa, hogy úgy lehetett vinni őket, mint az állatokat. Nem gondolkodtak. Nem is találkoztam olyannal, akiben ez felmerült. Engem nagyban hozzásegített az is, hogy volt egy lengyel barátnőm, aki Krakkóba való volt. Unterricht Sabina nagyon jó barátnőm volt. Az egész család elpusztult. Szóval vannak olyanok, ahol senki nincs, aki jelentsen, mert mindenki elpusztult. A férje, Perlrott Mendel építészmérnök volt, rokonságban állt a festő Perlrott-Csaba Vilmossal [Perlrott-Csaba Vilmos (Békéscsaba, 1880 – Budapest, 1955) – festő. Számos kiállítása volt Európa különböző nagyvárosaiban, több díjat nyert. Budapesten 1919-ben, 1925-ben és 1931-ben az Ernst Múzeumban volt kiállítása. – A szerk.]. A Perlrott Mendel munkaszolgálatosként halt meg, együtt vonult be az élettársammal, a Braun Lászlóval. Én Sabinának köszönhetem, hogy megszöktem a békéscsabai gettóból, mert ő elmondta, hogy a rokonaival mi történt Krakkóban: az összes hozzátartozóját elvitték, és ő úgy tudta, hogy megölték őket. Ő azért nem szökött meg, mert félt, hogy a magyar csendőrök felismernék az akcentusáról, mert a magyar nyelvet akcentussal beszélte. Csak a kislányát adta ki. Az egyéves kislányát kiadta a gettó falán egy textilmérnök feleségének, akinek a férje aztán visszajött a munkaszolgálatból, és később kimentek Amerikába. Úgyhogy ez a kislány, aki ma már hatvan éves, ma is él!

Akkor jött a másik segítség. Mondtam, hogy a Tevan nagyapának több gyereke volt, aki nem zsidóhoz, hanem keresztényhez ment hozzá. Az egyik, a Tevan Gizella, aki szintén életben maradt így, mert nem kellett bemennie a gettóba [A zsidókra vonatkozó rendeletek alól mentesítettek körét a Sztójay-kormány 1730/1944. M.E. számú rendelete határozta meg. A gettósítást – és ebből következően a deportálást – előíró rendelet (6163/1944. B.M.) nem vonatkozott – többek között – a vegyes házasságban élő zsidókra és leszármazottaikra (Randolph L. Braham: A népirtás politikája, A Holocaust Magyarországon, Budapest, Belvárosi Kiadó, 1997, 551. oldal). – A szerk.]. Az ő veje, Balla Alajos – mindenki nevét említem, aki segített – mondta, hogy ne menjünk most Budapestre, mert veszélyes. Ellenőrzik a pályaudvarokat, amíg el nem viszik a gettót. Hanem menjünk az ő lakásába, mert a családja kint nyaralt a Körös mentén, az úgynevezett szanazugi üdülőben. Így történt, hogy öten voltunk abban a lakásban. Mert én feltételnek szabtam, hogy csak akkor vagyok hajlandó elfogadni ezt a lakást, ha anyámat meg az öcsémet is odavihetem. Az anyám, az öcsém, egy unokatestvérem és egy másik unokatestvérem felesége volt ott és én. Ez alatt az idő alatt vitték a gettót a dohánygyárba, és pár nap leforgása alatt bevagonírozták őket. Nekem ott két szörnyű emlékem is van. Mert ez a lakás a főútvonalon volt, a redőnyein keresztül mindent lehetett látni. És én láttam, amikor vitték őket a dohánygyárba. Megengedték, hogy vigyenek – nem tudom, hány kilós – csomagot. Ez volt egy újabb megfosztás. Amikor az úgynevezett gettóba költöztünk, akkor megengedték, hogy fekvőhelyet vigyünk, meg mit tudom én, elő volt írva, hogy mit engednek meg. A dohánygyárba már csak bizonyos súlyú csomagot. Valószínűleg, amikor bevagonírozták, azt se vihették magukkal. Ez volt az egyik szörnyű dolog! Másik az, hogy az egyik nagymamám, anyai nagymamám, akinél én gyerekkoromban laktam, és nagyon szerettem, az Aggok Házában volt, a Zsidó Aggok Házában, és én ott fölkerestem. De nem mondhattam el neki, hogy megszökünk. Úgy köszöntem el tőle, hogy én tudtam, hogy többet őt nem fogom látni! Ez egy borzasztó dolog volt. Ő pedig akkor nem volt olyan öreg, fiatalabb volt, mint én most, mert olyan 78-79 éves volt. Ez a lakás, amiben bújtunk, nagyon közel volt a vasútállomáshoz, úgyhogy én éjszaka hallottam, amikor a vagonajtókat csapkodták, német jelszavak, kiabálás! Végig kellett mind hallgatni! Nagyon-nagyon nehéz volt! A többieknek lehetőleg nem mondtam el, mert nem akartam, hogy olyan hangulat legyen.

Én és az unokatestvérem felesége jöttünk el legelőször, körülbelül a békéscsabai gettó elvitele után olyan egy héttel, július első napjaiban. Mi följöttünk Budapestre. A másik unokatestvérem férje, a Balla Alajos hozott fel minket. Azután már minden valahogy magától értetődően ment, mert másnap kivettünk egy albérleti lakást ketten. Én munkát kerestem, és akkor mint fényképészsegéd úgy dolgozhattam, hogy bár a papírjaim Kis Erzsébet névre szóltak, de a munkakönyvem – amit szintén Balla Alajostól kaptam, mert neki volt fotóüzlete Békéscsabán, és az ő segédjének a munkakönyvét adta ide –, az Kürti Mária névre volt kiállítva. Úgyhogy én két néven voltam, más a munkahelyemen meg más néven a bejelentett lakásomon. Nagyon jól megfizettek, mert akkor volt az, hogy a németek ilyen Leicán rengeteg fényképet csináltak. Jöttek be mindennap az üzletbe, és nagyítást kértek. Nekem az volt a feladatom, hogy ezeket a filmeket elő kellett hívni, nagyítani. Ez az üzlet – úgy hívták, hogy Török Fotó – ez a mai Terror Háza helyén volt, ami akkor a nyilasoknak a fészke volt [Andrássy út 60. – A szerk]. Nem voltak hatalmon, mikor én ott dolgoztam, de mikor légiriadó volt, akkor a pincébe oda kellett volna lemennem. És én soha nem mentem le, mert féltem a nyilasoktól. És a főnököm mindig kérdezte – Hogy van az, hogy maga nem jön le, Marika? – Én itt biztonságban érzem magam a sörétkamrában – mondtam. Tényleg így is volt. Ez volt a pikantériája, ez még kapcsolódott nekem a Terror Házához! Ezt sokáig nem lehetett fenntartani. De egy hónapig igen, és ez jól jött, mert elég jól fizettek. Ha jól emlékszem, 400 pengőt kaptam hetenként, az akkor nagy pénz volt, és az anyámat meg az öcsémet is tudtam segíteni, akik szintén feljöttek, illetve valaki felhozta őket később. Egy családnál voltak, Zsille Zsigmondéknál, ahol húsz zsidót bújtattak. Ennek is története van, mert ezzel csak lebukni lehet. Mint ahogy a nyilas hatalomátvétel után, 1945. október 15. után le is bukott a társaság, és anyám véletlenül nem volt ott, mert az mindig változott, hogy ki hol bújt [Az izraeli kormány hivatalos honlapján a következők olvashatók: „A megmentettek: Tevan Zsófia, Tevan György, az édesanya Tevan Rezsőné, Domokos Józsefné és még több zsidó. Hankó Mátyás nevű barátja segítségével Tevan asszony fiával, Györggyel és lányával, Zsófiával megszökött a békéscsabai gettóból. Elbújtak egy rövid ideig olyan családtagjaiknál, akikre nem vonatkoztak a zsidótörvények. Budapesten élő közeli barátjuk, Domokos Sárika segítségével felvették a kapcsolatot Zsille Zsigmonddal, aki tartalékos századosként a háború alatt hadigondozó tisztként szolgált. Ő és felesége, Júlia hajlandó volt elrejteni mind a négyüket budapesti lakásukban, az Alpár u. 7. szám alatt. A bújtatott zsidók száma idővel nőtt, néha elérte a harmincat is. Novemberben egy razzia során, egy bejelentés miatt letartoztatták Zsille Júliát és a lakásban rejtőző néhány embert. Az üldözöttek közül többen a ház pincéjében bújtak el, mint például a Tevan család, így őket nem hurcolták el. Zsille Zsigmond százados nem tartózkodott otthon, így őt sem fogták el. A megmentésben részt vett fiuk, a 19 éves Győző is. A megmentettek tanúvallomásai szerint a fiú ételt vitt nekik és aktívan részt vett a rejtegetésükben, az élelmiszer beszerzésében, hamis papírok gyártásában, továbbításában. Egy feljelentés nyomán a nyilaskeresztesek razziáját követően apjának és saját magának is bujkálnia kellett, de apja, Zsille Zsigmond ekkor is segített, menleveleket szerzett és ezekkel kihozott a téglagyári gyűjtőtáborból üldözötteket.” – A szerk.]. De az öcsém az igen, és őt elvitték a téglagyárba, ahonnan az erőltetett meneteket indították. A nyilas kormány 25 000 zsidó átadását engedélyezte a Harmadik Birodalomban végzendő munkára. A behívott és összefogdosott zsidókat az újlaki (óbudai) téglagyárba vitték. November 8-tól innen gyalogmenetben indították őket Hegyeshalom fel. Ezek a menetelések hegyeshalmi halálmenetekként kerültek a köztudatba. Lásd még: halálmenetek Hegyeshalomba. – A szerk. Szerencséje volt, hogy ő sokkal gyerekesebbnek látszott, mint ahány éves volt, és egy nap egy jóérzésű magyar rendőr, amikor nem voltak ott a nyilasok, azt mondta – Na, most tűnjetek el innen, ne lássalak titeket! Kitette őket egyszerűen. És az öcsém, aki soha nem járt Budapesten, a sín mentén jutott el a Keleti pályaudvarhoz, ahol tudta, hogy egy távoli rokonunk lakik. Szóval, nem akarom részletezni a történetet, és aztán tulajdonképpen ők édesanyámmal együtt egy ilyen mesterembernek, egy asztalosnak a pincéjében bújtak el egészen az ostromig, amíg fel nem szabadultak.

1945. október 15. előtt én találkoztam egy békéscsabai fiúval, később újságíró volt, most is él, Lőcsei Pálnak hívják, de Lerner Pál volt az eredeti neve. 1956-ban 8 évre ítélték el, de annyit nem ült le. Azért mondom, hogy ilyen életek voltak [Lőcsei Pál (Békéscsaba, 1922) – 1947–1954 között a „Szabad Nép” munkatársa, rovatvezetője. 1954-ben a politikai vezetés bírálata miatt eltávolították a laptól. 1955 májusában csatlakozott a Nagy Imre körül kialakult pártellenzékhez. 1956 október 30-ától Gimes Miklós és Kende Péter mellett a „Magyar Szabadság” szerkesztője volt. 1958-ban nyolc év börtönbüntetésre ítélték. 1962-ben szabadult. – A szerk.]. Ő mindennap eljött hozzám, mert én egész október 15-ig dolgoztam abban a fotóüzletben, és mindennap tájékoztatott engem, hogy  tárgyalások vannak Horthyval, kiugrás, hogy a szocdemek azt követelik, hogy fegyverezzük föl a csepeli munkásságot, amit Horthy nem óhajtott egyáltalán. Én mindenről értesülve voltam. És azt kérdezte tőlem, hogy nem tudnék-e fegyvereket szerezni. Mondtam, hogy nekem van ismerősöm a kiskarhatalmi csoportoknál, mert magyar egyetemistákból kiskarhatalmi csoportokat [lásd: kisegítő karhatalmi egység] létesítettek. Mondtam, hogy amit ők használnak, azt tudok szerezni. És tényleg, mintának beszereztem ilyen gránátvetőket. Pont október 15-re beszéltünk meg egy randevút, hogy én egy aktatáskában hozom ezeket, és ott találkozunk a Podmaniczky úton. Aztán jött reggel a Horthy proklamációja, akkor mindenki kitette a rádiót az ablakba, és szóltak az embereknek, akik még sárga csillaggal jártak, sőt odamentek és leszakították, hogy nem kell már sárga csillagot hordani. Mindenki nagyon lelkes volt. Ez nálam tartott körülbelül déli 12 óráig. A közelébe voltam a mai Dózsa György útnak, akkor Aréna útnak hívták, és az Aréna úton egyszer csak dübörögve jöttek be a német tigrisek! Ezek a tankok. Akkor tudtam rögtön, hogy ez csak rosszabb lehet. Aztán elmentem, hogy találkozzak a Lerner Palival, de ő nem jött el, mert közben ő lebukott, mint aztán kiderült. Mindegy. Én elkövettem azt a súlyos hibát, nem volt még ebben tapasztalatom, hogy nem mentem el rögtön, hanem ott elkezdtem sétálni azzal az aktatáskával, és egy rendőr volt ott. Hogy a rendőr ne figyeljen rám, én szólítottam le. Akkor a Várat már védték. Ez délután volt, és a Várat a németek lőtték. Látható volt, hogy nagy zűrzavar van az egész városban, és Pestet a németek uralták teljesen. És én megszólítottam azt a magyar rendőrt, hogy maga kinek a pártján van. Így. És az volt a válasza, majd meglátjuk, hogy ki győz! Azóta ezt mindig szoktam idézni: Majd meglátjuk, ki győz!

Ez egy zűrös időszak volt utána nagyon. Egyre nehezebb lett. De a papírok működtek tovább, sőt amikor Békéscsabát október 6-án elfoglalták az oroszok, attól kezdve aztán végképp, mert én még kértem egy menekültügyi papírt is, hogy én az oroszok elől menekültem el. Különböző foglalkozásokat űztem, mert a fotósság valahogy veszélyessé vált. A lakást is föl kellett mondani: ez egy érdekes történet. Az unokabátyám feleségével együtt vettünk ki egy lakást, egy szobát helyesebben, valahol a VIII. kerületben. Nagyon ócska kis szoba volt. Én jártam dolgozni, ő általában otthon volt. És egyik nap, amikor hazamentem este, azzal fogadott, hogy „Te, innen el kell mennünk! Képzeld el, felkeresett egy nő, és elkezdett rimánkodni, hogy adjam vissza a férjét, és ne csábítsam el!”. Kiderült, hogy akinek a papírjaival ő volt, annak volt egy nős emberrel viszonya. Nehéz helyzet alakult ki, és féltünk, hogy ebből baj lehet. Ezt a lakást gyorsan feladtuk, és máshova költöztünk. És akkor különböző helyeken laktunk, nem akarom mindet részletesen elmondani. Dolgozni pedig utoljára a Pajor Szanatóriumban dolgoztam a Vas utcában mint cselédlány. Akkor német tisztek voltak a szanatóriumban, és az volt a feladatom, hogy a liften adjak föl nekik reggelit. Mikor Budapest éhezett, az már karácsony előtt, decemberben volt 1944-ben, akkor én a tejet, amit soha nem szerettem, azt úgy loptam és ittam, mielőtt felküldtem volna, meg zsemlyéket, ami nagy szó volt! És vittem fel is, mert katonaszökevények dolgoztak mint londinerek a szanatóriumban, és én azoknak is zsemlyét vittem.

Egyszer a Pajor Szanatóriumból elmentem az anyámat megnézni, jöttem hazafelé, már sötét volt. Nem volt olyan késő, de öt-hat órakor már sötét volt. Jöttem hazafelé az Aradi utcában, akkor ott laktam bent a szanatóriumban, és két nyilas katona megszólított, hogy igazoljam magam. Én odaadtam az igazolványpapírokat, amit ők fordítva tartottak. Azt mondtam nekik, hogy „Maguk részegek, hát fordítva tartják a papírokat!”. Akkor már nem érdekelt semmi, nagyon bolond voltam. És ők meg kicsavarták a kezemből a zseblámpát, mert világítás nem volt, és ezzel eltűntek. Én meg elszaladtam. Vártam, hogy lőni fog utánam, de nem volt semmi. Nyugodtan agyonlőhettek volna, nem kellett elszámolni senkivel, senkinek az életével, ha valakit agyonlőttek.

De ezzel kapcsolatban azért el kell mondanom, hogy én a Pajor szanatóriumban védett körülmények között voltam. Oda nem jöttek be a nyilasok, mert német katonatiszteket ápoltak, és én ritkán mehettem ki, mert a munkám lekötött. Csak este, néha, de azért két elég borzasztó emlékem maradt ezekről az időkről. Az egyik az, amikor egy csillagos házból kísértek ki zsidókat, valószínűleg a Duna-partra. Én még akkor azt nem tudtam, de egész borzalmas látvány volt. Fiatal, ilyen suhanc gyerekek voltak felfegyverezve, és kisgyerekek, asszonyok főleg, akik a menetben voltak. A másik, az még talán borzasztóbb emlék, és nem is tudom kitörölni, nem is akarom az emlékezetemből. A Nyugatinál mentem, és egyszer csak egy hulla feküdt a járdán. Az arcára most is emlékszem, fiatalember, katonaruhában, akire azt írták rá egy papírra, ilyen papundeklire, „katonaszökevény voltam”. Hát szerencsétlen, lehet, hogy nem tudta igazolni magát a Nyugatiból, nem tudom, honnan jött, de hát a Horthy-proklamációra eljöhetett onnan is, mert úgy nézett ki, hogy befejeződik a háború, vagy legalábbis nem lesz tovább harc. De a nyilasok mindenkit agyonlőttek. Tehát nemcsak zsidókat, hanem azokat is, akiket ők katonaszökevénynek és árulónak minősítettek. Egyszerűen ott az utcán, és elriasztásul otthagyták napokig a hulláját. Ez is bennem maradt. Hát arról nem beszélve ugye, mikor aztán kijöhettem a Pajor szanatóriumból, és a tönkrebombázott várost láttam, a lerobbant hidakat. Az a szörnyű számomra, hogy még ma is vannak olyan csoportok, akik Szálasit példaként követik. Most nem azért, amit a zsidókkal tett, hanem amit az országgal tett. És én tudom, mert volt valaki rokonom akkor a bíróságon vagy ügyészségen, hogy Szálasit kivitték egyszer a börtönből, és végigvitték a városon, hogy megmutassák neki, hogy mit csináltak Budapestből. Semmiféle felelősséget nem érzett. Azt mondta, hogy ő nem felelős azért, hogy Budapestet így tönkrebombázták és a hidait lerombolták.

Éreztem, hogy ha bejönnek az oroszok, nem jó, ha ott maradok egy olyan szanatóriumban, ahol németeket ápolnak. Körülbelül karácsony előtt két-három nappal páran összebeszéltünk, aki bújtatott minket, annak a feleségével és a fiával kimentünk Rákoshegyre. Az az ő ötletük volt, én nem voltam Pest környékén ismerős. Gyalog mentünk, egy hátizsák krumplit vittünk élelemnek. Feltörtünk egy ott lévő villát, azt se tudom, kié volt. Ott volt egy kis cselédszoba, ahol be tudtunk fűteni valami fával, és ott maradtunk. Karácsony napján, egyszer csak hajnalban orosz szavakat hallok. Én úgy megörültem, hogy kirohantam, és az első orosz katonát átöleltem, szerencsém volt, hogy semmi bajom nem történt! Sőt, észrevette az órámat, ami nem is a saját órám volt, valaki megkért, hogy őrizzem meg az aranyóráját. És figyelmeztetett, hogy tegyem el. Oroszul mondta, én a szlovákból valahogy akkor is már megértettem, hogy mit mond. Lehet véletlen, lehet, hogy a gondviselés, de énnekem semmi bajom ezekkel nem volt. Tőle tudtuk meg aztán, hogy a parlamentereket legyilkolták Malinovszkij marsall dec. 29-én megadásra szólította föl Budapest védőit, ezt azonban a német parancsnokság visszautasította. Az ultimátumot átadó parlamentercsoportok sorsa tragikusan végződött. A Pest melletti Vecsés határában a magyar származású Steinmetz Miklós (szül. Pécs, 1913), a szovjet hadsereg századosa el sem jutott a magyar-német állásokig, mert gépkocsija aknára futott. Osztapenko századosnak sikerült Budán átjutnia a 8. SS-lovashadosztály vonalain, de csoportja visszafelé ismeretlen eredetű aknatüzet kapott, mely halálra sebezte Osztapenkót. A követküldés sikertelensége után indult meg Budapest ostroma. – A szerk. és akkor ott ilyen sztálinorgonát állítottak föl az udvarba, és egész nap tüzelték Budapestet A szovjet fejlesztésű, „katyusa” vagy „sztálinorgona” néven emlegetett fegyver (BM 13) egy ún. kisrakéta-sorozatvető tüzérségi fegyver volt. Nevét a különböző méretű lövedékek változó hangú sivítása után kapta. – A szerk.. Nem jó érzés volt, tudva, hogy ott van az öcsém is, anyám is, meg a többi rokonság.

De azt is el kell mondanom, hogy akkor, amikor Budapest éhezett, tele voltak a raktárak élelmiszerrel, és a németek otthagyták, nem tudták megvédeni. Valahol Kőbányán voltak ezek a raktárak, amikor az oroszok elfoglalták, hozták hátra, és valahol ott az egyik házat ők is feltörték, és ott berendeztek egy élelmiszerportált. Én életemben akkor láttam először akkora tábla csokoládékat meg fagyasztott tojást meg ilyet. Megkértek, hogy segítsünk nekik, és ezért fizetségbe baltával vágott le a csokoládéból, emlékszem. És én azzal a csokoládéval mentem vissza a még nem teljesen fölszabadított Pestre, januárban. Na ebből aztán különböző bajok lettek! Mert én meg akartam találni az öcsémet és az anyámat. Persze nem találtam meg, de különböző bajaim voltak, mert a Nefelejcs utca környékén voltak a harcok még akkor. Volt olyan helyzet, hogy nekem is négykézláb kellett kúszni, mert a másik utcából a németek lőttek. Ez egy kicsit felelőtlen dolog volt, hogy ilyen hamar, mert meg kellett volna várnom, míg a harcok elcsitulnak. Nem akartam addig várni. Mikor elértem végül abba a pincébe, ahol tudtam, hogy ők bújnak, ők már nem voltak ott, mert nagyon okosan, ahogy az oroszok elfoglalták, elindultak hazafelé, Békéscsaba felé. Én viszont aznap éjszaka ott aludtam a pincében, ami az utcai harcok miatt majdnem visszakerült a németekhez. Kevés híja volt, hogy újból a németek kezére kerülök. Így történt meg a felszabadulás. Azután körülbelül február elején indultam haza, Békéscsabára. A vonatok már Monortól jártak, Monortól ilyen platóskocsin utaztunk dermesztő hidegben. Monoron három napot egy szovjet kórházban dolgoztunk: Davaj málicsku robotni [Malenkij robot – A szerk.]! Elvittek, de tényleg csak erre a munkára vittek el. Be a kórházba, segítség kell! De én ezt természetesnek is vettem. Úgy gondoltam, ezek szerencsétlen emberek, miértünk is pusztulnak el, de borzasztó körülmények voltak, és valamit, nem tudom, mit szedtem föl. Valami betegséget. Nem flekktífuszt, de az egy elég szomorú hely volt, emlékszem! A szerencsétlen szovjet katonákat egy orvosnő látta el, még ma is előttem van egy katona, aki mindig a mamája után sírt. Odaültem az ágyára, szegénynek. Nem volt villanyvilágítás, az orvosnő petróleum lámpa mellett kezelte a sebeket. Szolnoktól már voltak személyvonatok, de betört ablakokkal persze. De azért mégiscsak úgy éreztem, hogy túl vagyunk az életveszélyen. Amikor már Szolnokra értünk, az már civilizált állapotnak felelt meg. Békéscsabán pláne.

A lakásunkba nem mehettünk, mert teljesen ki volt fosztva. Semmi nem volt. Az egyik nagynéném, a Tevan Lászlóné, akinek a Don-kanyarban halt meg a férje – mondtam, hogy egy német nő, reichsdeutsch volt –, ő fogadott be mindenkit a családból, aki hazajött, az hozzáment. Egy rém rendes asszony, végig nagyon szerettem, és jóban voltam vele. 93 évet élt meg, nem régen halt meg. Ő aztán együtt élt egy lengyel zsidóval, akihez később férjhez is ment. Megint zsidóba botlott, egy ilyen asszony volt. Azután lassan anyukámmal rendbe hoztuk annyira a lakást, hogy tudtunk ott élni. Akkor anyukám volt az ügyesebb, mert eladogatta az építkezési állványt meg ilyen dolgokat, és abból éltünk egy ideig. Akkor nem volt olyan nehéz megélni, mert élelmet kellett csak szerezni, semmi mást.

A családból a férfiak nagy részét behívták munkaszolgálatra, és a Don-kanyarban pusztultak el. A doni katasztrófa után ment ki az élettársam, a Braun László, akkor vitték ki őket. Ő írt nekem egy levelet, hogy úgy tudja, a Tevan Laci, a legkisebb Tevan gyerek, a filozófus, fogságba esett a Böhm Józseffel, aki viszont a Tevan Erzsébetnek volt a férje. De így volt, vagy nem, akkor is ott pusztult el. Szóval nem jött vissza egyik se. Tehát a lényeg az, hogy kilenc gyerek közül három maradt életben. Tevan Andor, aki Bécsben csinálta végig az egész deportálást, ahol az apám is kezdte. Bécsben édesapámmal együtt volt. A Tevan Andor azt mondta, hogy őt a bécsi nép mentette meg, a bécsiek. Ez érdekes volt számomra, mert a bécsiekben még nagyobb volt a Hitler iránti rajongás, de ő ezt nem így érezte. Ő utcaseprő volt. Különböző munkákra használták őket, és őt kirendelték utcaseprésre. Ahogy söpörte az utcát, leesett a szemüvege, eltört. Ezt egy járókelő asszony látta, és megkérdezte, hogy milyen dioptria. Adja ide a szemüvegét, én holnap, ugyanide elhozom – mondta. És tényleg elhozta. Ezért mondom, hogy nem szabad általánosítani. Az, hogy ki a rendes ember, és ki az, aki gazember, nem is tudom, nagyon nehéz dolog, de az tényleg egy nagyon rendes asszony volt, aki látta, hogy kivel áll szemben, mert rajta volt a csillag. Ilyenek is voltak Bécsben. Valahol Bécs környékén, barakkokban laktak.

Az apámat is Bécsbe vitték. A családban örökletes betegség az aranyér, és tulajdonképpen apám ott mint régi katonaviselt úgy gondolta, hogy ha elmegy kórházba, és megoperáltatja az aranyerét, akkor addig is eltelik valami idő a háborúból, és könnyebben hazajön. Pont fordítva volt. Mert a kórházból nem hozták vissza oda, ahol ők dolgoztak, különböző munkákat végeztek Bécsben. Édesapám, úgy tudom, egy mérnöknél is dolgozott egy irodában. Jobb helyen volt, de onnan, a kórházból egyenesen Bergen-Belsenbe vitték. Tulajdonképpen érdekes, egy furcsa dolog volt bennünk, azokban is, akik átélték Auschwitzot, meg azokban is, akik – mint én – megszöktek, hogy amikor hazamentünk, örültünk annak, hogy élünk, és igyekeztünk nem beszélni a múltról. Ezt alátámasztotta az is, hogy a Rákosiék [lásd: Rákosi-korszak] is szőnyeg alá akarták söpörni az egész dolgot, a zsidókérdést. Nem nagyon beszéltek erről ők se. Mert ő maga is zsidó volt, meg a Gerő is. Szóval nem beszélgettünk. Én a nagybácsimtól soha nem kérdeztem. Nem kérdeztem az édesapámról se, hogy és mint volt. Utólag ez nagyon bánt, de azért annak utána jártam, hogy mi történt az apámmal. Mert hallottam, hogy valaki Bergen-Belsenből hazajött Hajdúböszörménybe. Egy bádogos, egy zsidó bádogos, aki együtt dolgozott édesapámmal. És persze, hogy csak jót írt róla. És megírta azt, hogy sok holland volt ott – többek között az Anna Frankot is odavitték, Bergen-Belsenbe. És ott kitört a flekktífuszjárvány, és édesapám ápolta őket vagy bejárt hozzájuk, nem tudom. Ő is elkapta a flekktífuszt, és abban halt meg. Az egyértelmű volt, hogy ő meghalt. Filmekben sokszor bejátszanak képeket a holokausztról, most is a hatvanadik évfordulón, pont a bergen-belseni képet. Ott rengeteg halottat találtak, elszórtan a koncentrációs táborban, és egyszerűen egy ilyen dózerrel…, nem tudtak mást csinálni az amerikaiak. Nem lehetett külön-külön eltemetni és azonosítani őket.

Auschwitzban halt meg az egyik nagynéném, Tevan Flóra, a férje, Révész Sándor, a két nagyanyám. Az egyik nagymamám elmúlt épp 80 éves, 81 volt, a másik pedig 2 évvel volt nála fiatalabb. Ki halt meg még Auschwitzban? Közeli rokonom talán több nem. Egy nagynéném, a Tevan Ilona bizonytalan. A fia még mikor élt, tavaly halt meg, azt mondta, hogy Bergen-Belsenben halt meg. A Tevan Erzsébet, az Theresienstadtból élve hazajött még, de olyan beteg volt, hogy egy nap múlva Budapesten, a kórházban halt meg. Tevan Ferencet Mauthausenben pusztították el, nem tudom, milyen körülmények között, mert többek között, ott azt is csinálták, ami a „Napfény íze” című filmben van. Hogy locsolják…, egy egész századot A téli hidegben, fagypont alatti hőmérsékleten vízzel locsolták az embereket, amíg lassan teljesen megfagytak. – A szerk.. Ezt egy könyvből tudtam meg. Úgyhogy szörnyű dolgok voltak. A Tevan Andornak a legidősebb fiát, a Pált a nyilasok agyonverték a magyar határnál. Az volt a legfőbb reménysége, őt küldte Bécsbe, ugyanabba a nyomdai főiskolába, amiben ő végzett. Egy nagyon rendes ember volt. Én szerettem. Sokkal idősebb volt nálam, de később, amikor már ez a korkülönbség nem számított, különösen, amikor ő megnősült, nagyon jóban voltunk. A felesége volt az egyik, akivel megszöktem. Ő ma is él még. Tulajdonképpen mindenki elpusztult. Három megmaradt. A Tevan Margit, aki ötvös lett. Ő maradt életben, de ő is úgy, hogy a négy- vagy ötéves fiával bevitték a budapesti gettóba, ahol a fia olyan szörnyűségeket látott, hogy sokáig, évekig csak hullákat rajzolt. Jó rajzoló volt, egyébként grafikus is lett, sok könyvet illusztrált, Engel Tevan István néven [Engel Tevan István 1936-ban született. – A szerk.]. Az ő édesapját, aki vegyészmérnök volt, és a Chinoinban mint gyógyszervegyész dolgozott, szintén megölték, azt hiszem, Mauthausenben. Úgyhogy a szűkebb családból, azt kell mondani, hogy nagyon sok pusztult el.

Tevan Andornak két gyereke maradt életben, a lánya, aki ide felszökött Pestre, és a Tevan Gábor, aki szintén nyomdai szakmában dolgozott, de nem volt olyan tehetséges, mint a nagyobbik fiú. Ő kiment 1956 után Amerikába, és ott nagyon sokra vitte. Sajnos már ő is meghalt. Azért mondom, hogy majdnem már csak én vagyok az unokák közül. Meg az öcsém, és még egy, a Tevan Lászlónak a fia, Tevan János. Ma már csak hárman vagyunk az unokák közül életben.

Az ötvenedik érettségi évfordulónk előtt összeszámoltam, hogy tizenhárom zsidó lány járt az osztályunkba. Az elég sok, mert olyan harminc és negyven között lehetett a létszám. De Békéscsaba nagyon sokat fejlődött azzal, hogy leszakadt Nagyvárad meg Arad, mert átvette Nagyvárad szerepét. Nemcsak kulturálisan, hanem a kereskedelemben is. Úgyhogy rengeteg kereskedő meg gyár volt Békéscsabán, amely zsidó kézben volt, textilgyár, volt egy csirkegyár, meg mit tudom én, mi. És azért volt így, gondolom, hogy ilyen sokan voltunk. A tizenhárom közül összesen négyen maradtunk életben… Mind Auschwitzban pusztult el. Na most, akik életben maradtak, azok közül kettővel most is tartom a kapcsolatot. Az egyik az orvosnő, ő megjárta Auschwitzot, a másik az a nyelvtudása révén helyezkedett el. Nagyon jól tudott angolul, németül, levelező volt, nem is tudom már, melyik édesipari cégnél. Egy kiment Izraelbe, egy nagyon gazdag lány volt. Soha nem felejtem el, hogy a huszonötödik érettségi találkozónkra ketten írtak levelet. Az egyik ő volt, Izraelből írta, és leírta azt, hogy milyen módon küzdöttek meg azért, hogy ott egy ilyen kibucban termőföldet csináljanak. A köveket kellett elhordani. Egy lengyelhez ment férjhez, gyereke is született. De most valószínűleg meghalt, mert akik leveleztek vele, azok is elvesztették a kapcsolatot. Szóval ez volt az egyik levél, a másik ennek az ellentéte. Egy volksbundista apukának a lánya, aki Kanadába ment ki, és csak arról írt, milyen nagyszerűen él. Küldött egy fényképet, egy ilyen hosszú, nagy autó mellett áll egy teniszütővel, hogy micsoda nagyon jó élete van. Úgyhogy ez a két ellentétes levél érkezett.

A családból csak 1956 után ment el külföldre a Tevan Gábor. Ő először a nyomdában dolgozott, aztán látta, hogy az apjával mit csinálnak Tevan Andor 1949-ben önként fölajánlotta üzemét államosításra, a kinevezett vezető azonban egy éven belül eltávolította őt, 1950-ben Tevan Andor elhagyta Békéscsabát. – A szerk.. Ügyes szakember volt, ilyen amerikai retust csinált, meg nem tudom, mit. Ő rögtön érvényesült, nem lett egy gazdag ember, de megélt. A fia, az szintén Gábor, karmester lett. Kint élnek az Egyesült Államokban. A fia jól beszél magyarul, a felesége is magyar volt. Amikor a nagyapja százéves születésnapjának az évfordulója volt, akkor itt volt a fiú, és megismertem, nagyon szimpatikus fiatalember. Azóta nem tudok róla. Másról nem tudok, hogy kiment volna.

1945-ben, mikor hazamentem Békéscsabára, akkor még létezett olyan, hogy demokratikus hadsereg. A németek akkor még benn voltak az országban. Ez márciusban volt, és én jelentkeztem önkéntesnek a németek ellen harcolni. Fölvettek, persze nem került bevetésre sor. Lehetett nőknek is jelentkezni. Egy hónapig tartott az a kiképzés, de hála istennek kiűzték a németeket az országból, és május 9-én véget ért a háború. Én komolyan gondoltam, mert úgy éreztem, hogy azért, hogy életben maradtam, valamit tenni kell. Azzal a romantikus elképzeléssel jelentkeztem. De semmiféle rangom nincsen. Legfeljebb az volt érdekes benne, hogy összeismerkedtem olyan lányokkal, akikkel tényleg még később is jóban voltam, egyikük óvónő lett, de már a nevét sem tudom. Aztán bekapcsolódtam a MADISZ munkájába.

Békéscsabán már 1944. október 6-án benn voltak az oroszok, és tulajdonképpen nagy kárt se okoztak. A város elég nagy része szlovák lakosságú, amelyik értett is, beszélni is tudott oroszul. Ezt utólag tudtam meg, mert én akkor nem voltam ott. Mikor már hazamentünk, tulajdonképpen normális élet volt. Volt bőven élelem. Minden volt, tojás, csirke. Zsidók nagyon kevesen jöttek vissza, Auschwitzból alig jöttek vissza. Tulajdonképpen nem is tudom. Mert rögtön ott szerveződött a kommunista párt lásd: Kommunisták Magyarországi Pártja, amelynek a megyei titkárát én jól ismertem, és hozzá bementem. Kőműves volt, egyszer bújtattuk is, mikor választások voltak! Mert mindig lecsukták a Horthy időkben [lásd: Horthy-korszak]. Tagja lettem a kommunista pártnak. És akkor ő maga mellé vett ilyen titkárnőfélének, gépeltem, meg mit tudom én. Olyan mindenes voltam, jolly joker. Aztán meg a Nemzeti Segélyhez tett, hogy ott hozzam rendbe a dolgokat 1945-ben a Magyar Kommunista Párt kezdeményezésére alakult társadalmi szervezet, melynek az anya- és csecsemővédelem, a tbc elleni küzdelem és az elhagyott gyermekek megsegítése volt a feladata. 1948-ban beolvadt a Magyar Vöröskeresztbe. – A szerk. Budapestről elhagyott, árva, kiéhezett gyerekeket hoztak, és azokat kellett elhelyezni családoknál, ez volt a feladatom. Egyszer a lefoglalt könyveket is végig kellett néznem, és akkor került kezembe Hitlernek a Mein Kampfja. Elküldtek akkor egy kéthetes pártiskolára is, ahol ilyen izéket sulykoltak az emberbe, alapvető dolgokat, amit a marxizmusról tudni kell.

Ősszel feljöttem a Műegyetemre. Akkor úgy kellett beiratkozni, nem volt felvételi. Beiratkoztam az egyetemre, ahol hatszázan voltunk egy évfolyamban. Ez nagyon sok. Tudom, a Technikus Körnek a titkára mondta is, hogy azért jönnek ennyien, mert látják, hogy Budapest romos, és fel kell építeni, vagy pedig ebben jó üzletet látnak. De nem volt mind a hatszáz valóságos hallgató, mert mindig szoktam hencegni vele, hogy a rózsadombi kéjgyilkos – volt egy ilyen akkor –, az is például beiratkozott építészmérnök-hallgatónak. Volt akkor egy indexe, amit igazoltatásnál fel tudott mutatni. Voltak kollégiumok, de oda nem vettek föl, és akkor sok diákkal együtt kibéreltünk…, nem is béreltünk, dehogy béreltünk! Egy volksbundista németnek, akit lecsuktak, a lakása üres volt, ezt valaki kiszimatolta, és mi oda beköltöztünk, nem is tudom, hányan, mert mindig változó létszám volt. Anyukám küldött lisztet, szóval ilyen alapvető dolgokat. Az első időkben nagyon nehéz volt, még kenyérjegyem se volt, és egy hónapig csak szőlőn éltem [lásd: jegyrendszer a második világháború alatt és után]. Úgyhogy akkor meg is utáltam a szőlőt! Az öcsém is ugyanúgy feljött az egyetemre, ő gépészmérnöknek iratkozott.

Az egyetemen a szilárdságtant nagyon szerettem, mert az matematikai alapú. Meg is becsült a professzor, mert az összes lányt lenézte. A pár száz hallgató közül harminc lány kezdett 1945-ben. Általában a lányoknak a fakanál súlypontját adta megvetése jeléül. Ezt kellett kiszámolni. Egyedül nekem nem, mert nekem a zárthelyiim is jól sikerültek, így én egy más feladatot kaptam. És rájöttem, valahogy rögtön akkor, hogy ez micsoda, és valahogy bevágódtam nála, az első alkalommal. Csonkának hívták, a gépgyárosnak a fia Csonka Pál (Budapest, 1896 – Budapest, 1987) – építészmérnök, egyetemi tanár, a szilárdságtan nemzetközi szaktekintélye. 1946–47-ben a Műegyetem építészmérnöki karának dékánja volt. Apja, Csonka János (Szeged, 1852 – Budapest, 1939) a karburátor feltalálója, a Műegyetem tanára, aki nyugdíjazása után saját gépműhelyt nyitott, amely 1941-ben Cs. J. Gépgyára Rt. néven működött. – A szerk. Szervezetünk nem volt, de volt a Technikus Kör, és annak az építésztagozatán dolgoztam. Nem volt női WC. Hát az egy óriási probléma volt. Én kaptam a feladatot. A rektor a Csűrös volt, a Csűrös Karolának az apja, és hozzá kellett bemennem. Nagyon jópofa volt, nagyon belevaló ember volt a Csűrös [Csűrös Zoltán (1901–1979) – vegyészmérnök, egyetemi tanár, akadémikus, a hazai polimerkémia úttörője és megteremtője 1946–49-ben és 1957–61-ben volt a Műegyetem rektora. – A szerk.]. Azzal kezdte, hogy megkínált tojáslikőrrel, mert az ő tanszékén mindig valamit kotyvasztottak, és én nagyon szerettem a tojáslikőrt. Amikor valahol összefutottunk később, mindig ezt említette meg, hogy tudom, maga volt az, aki a női WC ügyében protestált. Aztán ki kellett nevezni, hogy ezek a női WC-k, és rá is írták később, hogy női WC.

Engem delegált az egyetem az Új Építészet Körébe Az 1946–1949 között megjelent „Új Építészet” című folyóirat körül csoportosuló építészek mozgalma, amely a tervszerű újjáépítést, az építészeti elvek és a szocialista társadalmi reformok összehangolását hirdette, a kor meghatározó építészeit tömörítette. – A szerk.. Itt ismertem meg a későbbi második férjemet, a Perczel Károlyt. Én nem voltam sokkal fiatalabb ezeknél, mert hat év késéssel kezdtem el az egyetemet, és számomra az nagyon érdekes volt és nagyon tanulságos, amit ott hallottam. A vezetőjük Major Máté volt meg a Preisich Gábor, a Bauhausnak a híve [Major Máté (1904–1986) – építész, egyetemi tanár, akadémikus, 1946–47-ben Országos Építésügyi Kormánybiztos. Szerkesztette 1946–49-ben az „Új Építészet”, c. szaklapot. Preisich Gábor (1909–1998) – építész, egyetemi tanár, akadémikus, építészettörténész, urbanisztikai író. 1949–1950-ben a Budapesti Városrendezési Iroda megalapítója, igazgatója 1951–1955 között a Fővárosi Tanács városrendezési és építészeti főosztály vezetője, majd 1975-ig a Budapesti Városépítési Tervező Vállalat városrendezési irodájának vezetője, Budapest általános rendezési terveinek irányítója. – A szerk.]. Amit én otthon láttam az édesapámtól. Én nagyon beletaláltam ebbe. És aztán jött a szocreál, az már 1950 körül volt.

Rögtön, amikor végeztem, akkor úgy sorba álltak értünk! A tervezőirodák főmérnökei bejöttek az egyetemre és agitáltak. Engem is, és így kerültem az Ipartervhez, ami akkor Nehézipari Tervezőiroda címen működött az Esterházy utcában Ma Öt pacsirta utca. – A szerk.. Ott a Múzeum mögött van most az Építőművész Szövetség. Ott volt a Tervezőiroda. Zegzugos, különböző kis lyukakban tervezgettünk. Én avval az elképzeléssel mentem oda, hogy végigcsinálok mindent, mielőtt tervezni fogok. Ott kezdtem, statikusként. De tovább nem jutottam! 1949-ben kezdtem el dolgozni. És 1949-ben a későbbi második férjemet lefogták a Rajk-perben, és elítélték életfogytiglanra. Úgyhogy én is rögtön megbízhatatlanná váltam. De nem ilyen egyszerűen, mert azért először is arról, hogy mi jóban voltunk, nem mindenki tudott! Tehát ehhez kellett egy feljelentő, de az mindig akadt ebben az országban. A későbbi főnököm írt egy feljelentő levelet. Azért tudom, mert nekem azt a feljelentő levelet a Pártközpontban megmutatták. Ez is ritka. Ebben mindent összehordott, attól kezdve, hogy én cionista voltam. De a „legkedvesebb” az volt, hogy a szeretőm egy trockista, aki most a Rajk-per miatt börtönben ül. Ez volt a lényeges dolog. És engem egyből kirúgtak az irodából. Elküldtek romeltakarító munkára, valahova Lágymányosra, amit én nem fogadtam el, nem mentem el. Végül nagy nehezen tudtam két hónap múlva elhelyezkedni úgy, hogy nem volt telefonunk sem, egy telefonfülkéből hívtam fel a Pártközpontban a káderosztály akkori vezetőjét – nem is tudom, ki volt –, akinek gyorsan elmondtam, hogy én pillanatnyilag is párttag vagyok, nem zártak ki a pártból, építészmérnöki diplomám van, és munka nélkül vagyok. Semmi mást nem akarok, csak dolgozni. És akkor ő elküldött engem valahova, a 21-es vállalathoz, vagy 23-ashoz. Nem is tudom, mi volt, mert számozva voltak az állami építőipari vállalatok, ahol építésvezető lettem.

1951-ben vagy 1952-ben megházasodtam. Lementem Dunaújvárosba dolgozni, önként jelentkeztem oda, és meg kell mondani, hogy úgy éreztem, végre valamit csinálok, ami mérnöki dolog [A mai Dunaújváros, az egykori Dunapentele akkoriban, 1951 és 1961 között a Sztálinváros nevet viselte. 1950-ben kezdték építeni a Dunai Vasművet. – A szerk.]. Sokat tanultam is, ezt köszönhetem a Wolf Johannának is, aki ott főmérnök volt [Wolf Johanna (1903–1990-es évek) – az első négy nő egyike, aki építészmérnöki oklevelet szerzett (1931). Egész életében kivitelező mérnökként dolgozott. 1929-ben kezdett dolgozni a Ganz csoporthoz tartozó Magyar Építő Részvénytársaságnál. 1951. augusztus 1-jén a 26. sz. Állami Építőtröszt főmérnöke lett. – A szerk.]. De nem volt bajom azzal sem, hogy megbízhatatlan voltam korábban, mert mikor elvégeztem az egyetemet, rögtön behívtak egy hat hónapos pártiskolára, ami a Karolina úton volt [A Karolina úti pártiskoláról lásd Hegedűs B. András és Kozák Gyula  interjúját a „Beszélő” 2001. októberi számában: „Vásárhelyi elvtárs, maga nem érti, miről van itten szó!” Vásárhelyi Miklóssal életének '45 és '56 közötti szakaszáról beszélget Hegedűs B. András és Kozák Gyula. – A szerk.]. Könnyű volt az embernek, ha akart volna, karriert csinálhatott volna. Nő voltam, mérnök voltam, viszonylag fiatal voltam, úgyhogy ott is rögtön kineveztek szemináriumvezetőnek. Amikor a munkahelyemről kirúgtak 1949-ben, akkor onnan is kitettek. A szeminárium tagjai között volt egy Leistinger nevű vasmunkás, akit később mint Lombos Ferencet ismertek meg, ő volt a Dunai Vasműnél, az építkezésnél a párttitkár. Amikor én lementem oda, ott találtam őt. De én ezt nem tudtam. Ő nagyon rendesen viselkedett, behívott és azt mondta, ne törődj te azzal, hogy megbízhatatlan vagy! Azt a pártiskolán sem tudták egyébként, hogy miért hívnak vissza a szemináriumról. Én mondtam meg, hogy valószínűleg azért, mert egy barátom van, aki a Rajk-ügybe belekerült. És azt mondja a Lombos Ferenc, én megvédelek minden támadástól. És tényleg nem volt semmi bajom, bár nem fogadták el az embert Dunaújvárosban sem, mert akik ott építésvezetők voltak, többnyire nem mérnöki diplomával, hanem a Thököly úton végeztek, a főiskolán [Az egykori Felső Építőipari Iskola utódjáról, az Ybl Miklós Építőipari Technikumról van szó, amely akkor csak középfokú iskola volt. – A szerk.]. Az arra alkalmas volt, hogy ők építésvezetők legyenek, de mégis azért feszélyezve érezték magukat, azokkal szemben, akik építészmérnöki diplomával rendelkeztek. Úgyhogy sokat szekáltak, feljelentettek engem, hogy nem építettem kéményeket, ami benne volt a tervben, mindenféle marhaságok. Volt ilyen felügyelő szervezet, és az sokat járt emiatt hozzám, mert feljelentettek.

Volt ez a női építkezés, a Wolf Johanna ötlete volt, hogy csináljuk. Ez egy eléggé rossz ideája volt. Én voltam az építésvezető, és volt két női munkavezetőm, és csupa nő dolgozott a gépen. Ez nem igaz, hogy az nőknek való, betont hordani meg nem tudom, mit. Én hamar rájöttem, hogy ez nem megy. De itt azért barátságok születtek. Az egyik munkavezetőnővel ma is jóban vagyunk, a férjét ott ismerte meg, Dunaújvárosban. Én voltam a tanú a házasságnál. A férjét is nagyon szeretem, egy rendes ember. Katonatiszt volt, de egy művelt katonatiszt, aki beszél több nyelvet, Vietnamban is járt.

Dunaújvárosban laktam lent, különböző helyeken. Én az első időkben mentem, mikor még búzaföldek álltak ott. Alig voltak kész házak. Egy ház volt, amiben a főmérnök, a Wolf Johanna irodája volt, és volt az a ház, amiben én a legfelső emeleten egy ilyen mosókonyha-szerűségnek épült helyiségben laktam. Egy ilyen kis helyiség, nem volt bevakolva, és télen olyan vizes volt, csorgott a víz róla, hogy egy tréningruhában aludtam éjszaka, mert fáztam. És a tréningruha csuromvíz lett, úgy csavartam ki reggel! Lehetetlen körülmények között laktam. Volt olyan is, hogy egy ház fürdőszobájában. Végül a férjem lejött utánam, mert ő meg az Erőműnél kapott munkát, ott kellett beindítani az Erőművet, akkor már rendes helyiségben laktunk. Ő beruházó volt, és a beruházók kaptak rendes épületet, egy lakásban egy szobát kaptunk. Nem tudom, hanyadmagunkkal laktunk abban, de az már kulturált, elviselhető volt. Az is jó volt, amikor új építkezést kezdtem, egy olyan felvonulási épületet építettem, ahol direkt egy szobát magamnak csináltam. Az nekem megfelelt. Nem volt fürdőszoba meg nem tudom, mi. De akkoriban ez elviselhető volt, és fiatal voltam. Én ott jól éreztem magam annak ellenére, hogy ilyen körülmények voltak. Mert a szakmai feladat az érdekes volt, érdekelt. Az az épület, amit a legjobban szerettem építeni, az a tűzállótéglagyárnak volt egy nagy, érdekes szerkezetű vasbeton épülete. Ma már semmi nincs ott, nem használják semmire, mert a tűzállótégla-gyártás az leállt. De a városban is dolgoztam, a városban lakóházat építettem. Egy szocreálban tervezett csúnya lakóházat. Ez az, amit nők építettek. Persze besegítettek férfiak is. És olyan buta szerkezetek vannak, nem volt fa az országban, és ezért a magastetőnek a szarufáit vasbetonból tervezték. Borzasztó dolgok voltak. Na, a várost én nem is szerettem olyan nagyon. De most, hogy visszamentem, annak ellenére, hogy szocreál házak is vannak benne, szépnek találtam. Sok növény, fa, virág van benne, és az emberek lokálpatrióták. Szeretik azt a várost. Szóval ez olyan lelkessé tett, hogy nem hiába építkeztünk ott!

Először életemben 1953-ban léptem át a magyar határt. Koppenhágába küldtek, a nemzetközi nőkongresszusra. Akkor az nagy szó volt, azt is jelentette, hogy most már megbíznak bennem, kvázi. A Magyar Nők Demokratikus Szövetségével mentem a koppenhágai kongresszusra. Én abban nem voltam bent, én nem voltam egy ilyen, hogy mondjam, feminista harcos. Nem. Én azt mondtam, hogy nem kell ez nekünk. A kongresszus nagy élmény volt számomra, mert először voltunk nyugaton. Megcsodáltuk a kirakatokat, ahol nejlon fehérneműk voltak, a nejlon bugyi és a nejlon ing meg ilyenek. Persze nem volt pénzünk, hogy ilyeneket vegyünk. Azt hiszem, Vassnénak hívták a szervezet vezetőjét. Ők elmentek máshova, és akkor rám bízták a csoportot, mert én tudtam németül meg angolul is valamelyest, és Dániában azzal lehetett boldogulni. Mindig számoltam az embereket, hogy megvannak-e, na nem azért, hogy nehogy kint maradjanak, mert olyanok voltak velem, hogy matyóruhás parasztasszonyok. Egy tizenhárom gyerekes mama, szegény. Egyetlen egy volt még, aki egy ilyen értelmiségi, ez egy matematika-tanárnő, nagyon helyes volt. Úgyhogy ennyi volt.

Mikor leállították Sztálinvárost, akkor 1954-ben följöttem Pestre, és nagyon nehéz volt elhelyezkedni, mert akkor nem keresték úgy a mérnököt! A Nagy Imre-kormány megalakulása (1953. július) után jelentős változásokra került sor a gazdaságpolitikában. Csökkentették a beruházásokat, és megváltoztatták a beruházások szerkezetét is, a gazdaságpolitika súlypontja a nehéziparról a könnyűiparra és a mezőgazdaságra tevődött át. Ez együtt járt számos nagyberuházás leállításával vagy lassításával: budapesti metró, diósgyőri Lenin Kohászati Művek rekonstrukciója, Sztálinváros építése. – A szerk. Egy úgynevezett Középgépipari Építő Vállalatnál helyezkedtem el, aminek ez a fedőneve volt, hadiüzemeket építő vállalat volt. Egy nagyon rendes főmérnöke volt, és egy nagyon buta és rosszindulatú munkásigazgatója, akit Sándor Lászlónak hívtak. Egyébként építésügyi miniszter is volt Sándor László (1910–1988) – eredeti foglalkozás kőművessegéd, 1945 előtt az Építőmunkás Szakszervezet vezetőségi tagja. 1950–51-ben építésügyi miniszter, utána vállalatigazgató. 1957-től a Határőrség párttitkára, majd az Építésügyi és Városfejlesztési Minisztérium tanácsadója. – A szerk.. A Középgépipari Építőipari Vállalatnál mint műszaki osztályvezető helyezkedtem el, egyszerűen semmi tekintélyem nem volt. Én azt éreztem, hogy lenéznek, kiröhögnek. Hetenként tartottam építésvezetői értekezletet, és hetenként számon kértem, hogy ami előző héten feladat volt, megcsinálták-e. Nem. És akkor egyszerre csak kikeltem magamból, és férfi módra elkáromkodtam nekik magam, és azt mondtam, hogy az isten bassza meg, itt vagy rend lesz, vagy vegyék tudomásul, hogy aki nem csinálja meg a feladatát, az mehet. És attól kezdve azt mondták, hogy aki így tud káromkodni, azt elismerik, hogy építőipari ember. Ott a főmérnököt leváltották. Régi vágású ember volt, nem is tudom, mi volt a kifogás. Politikai kifogás volt ellene. És meg akartak tenni engem főmérnöknek. Mondtam, hogy nem vállalom ez után a főmérnök után, tegyék ki a buta igazgatót, ne a jó főmérnököt. Ez egy butaság volt, azt hittem, mindig meg kell mondani az igazat. Sok minden ellentétünk volt, mert a vállalatunk ingyen épített államtitkároknak a lakásában is, én ezeket jelentettem, hogy ez azért mégis helytelen, ennyi pénzt költeni stb. Vége az lett, hogy 1954 utolsó napján, december 30-án kizártak a pártból, és megint kitettek a munkahelyemről. De ez már abban az időben volt, amikor a „Szabad Nép”-nél ezek a taggyűlések voltak, amikor kritizálták az egész pártvezetést. Úgyhogy pillanatok alatt elterjedt a híre, hogy engem miért tettek ki. Egy nyolcoldalas jegyzőkönyv készült, ami abszolút nem fedte a valóságot, mindent össze kellett hordani. Megjelent a „Szabad Nép”-ben egy cikkem, hogy a prémiumrendszer az építőiparban rossz. Mert az építésvezetők forintteljesítmény után kapják a prémiumot. Tehát, ha beállítanak egy autóbuszt, ami üresen jár oda-vissza, annak a költségei is emelik az ő prémiumukat. Na, emiatt behívtak a Pártközpontba, egy egyébként értelmes, egyetemről ismert bölcsész barátom volt ott, akit érdekelt ez a dolog, de hát legalábbis úgy tett, mintha érdekelné. És amikor én bementem az Akadémia utcába, mert akkor még ott volt a Pártközpont, akkor ott csönd volt, perzsaszőnyegek és nem tudom, mi. És akkor a párttitkárnak elmondtam, hogy egyáltalán nem volt jó benyomásom a Pártközpontról, teljesen el vannak szakadva a valóságtól. Ez mind persze benne volt a kizárásban. Meg hogy nem voltam hajlandó agitálni, hogy emelkedett az életszínvonal. Mert akkor gyalázatos volt, tényleg a vidéki munkások tőlem kértek pénzt, hogy legyen mit hazavinniük! Olyan állapotok voltak. Ez volt, én az egészen tulajdonképpen mulattam. Inkább egy hősnek éreztem magam, mert jöttek föl a barátok, és kezdtek kérdezni, hogy mi történt, mi volt. Ez akkoriban úgy elterjedt. Utána ugye jöttek a Petőfi köri gyűlések, azokra mindre eljártunk a férjemmel együtt [Baloldali ifjúsági értelmiségi vitafórum, melynek jelentős szerepe volt az 1956-os forradalom szellemi előkészítésében. 1955-ben a DISZ keretén belül alakult meg, majd 1956 tavaszától a Nagy Imre körül kialakult pártellenzék fórumává vált. – A szerk.]. És közben lettem én állapotos, 1955-ben született meg a fiam.

Egy éves épp azon a napon volt, amikor a Rajkot újratemették, 1956-ban. Arra nagyon jól emlékszem, mert ahhoz, hogy el tudjunk menni a temetésre mind a ketten, a nagymamát kellett megkérni, az anyósomat, hogy legyen a gyerekkel. A forradalom napjaiban lásd: 1956-os forradalom semmi forradalmi cselekményt nem csináltam, otthon voltam a fiammal. Az belefért, hogy ott a ház lakóival együtt a Verpeléti úton, mert akkor még az volt a Karinthy Frigyes út, felszedtük a kockákat, mikor jöttek a tankok. Sok kisgyerek volt abban a házban, ahol akkor laktunk, és énnekem eszembe jutott, hogy a Kelenföldi Tejüzem ott van közel. És megszerveztem, hogy egy stráfkocsival elmentünk, és hoztunk tejet, vajat, szóval, ami ott volt, azt nem is tudom, hogy ingyen vagy pénzért, de ideadták. És aztán hazavittük, és szétosztottuk a gyerekesek között. Erre az egy cselekményemre büszke vagyok. Akkor voltak ilyen gyermektápszerek, és sorban álltam egy gyógyszertár előtt, amikor lőtték a Bartók Béla utat, ilyen emlékeim vannak.

A férjem egyébként egész idő alatt Karinthyt olvasott. Otthon volt. Én is otthon voltam zömében, és így kevés élményem volt. De azért megdöbbentem, amikor abban a XI. kerületi kis utcában, mert ott egy nagyon kis utca volt a Siroki utca, ott a Körtér mögött, ahol laktunk, egyszerre csak nyilas karszalaggal láttam meg embereket. Akkor még nemrég volt vége a háborúnak, és Ausztriából átjöttek. És azt hitték, hogy most az ő világuk jött el. És akkor hát hirtelen megdöbbentem. Ennek ellenére nem mondom azt, hogy ez egy ellenforradalom volt. Azt soha nem mondtam. Ez egy szabadságharc volt, mi azt hittük akkor naivul, hogy meg lehet változtatni a szocialista rendszert. És a szocialista rendszerben lehet jólét is, csak a Sztálinék csinálták ilyen borzalmasan elhibázottan. Hát, körülbelül ez volt a mi felfogásunk róla.

Be is mentünk Budapestre november 4-e után nem sokkal, és akkor láttuk, hogy különösen a Körút, az Üllői út környéke borzasztó volt, a Kilián laktanya teljesen szétlőve [Ma Mária Terézia laktanya. – A szerk.]. Meg az egész nagyon szomorú látvány volt. Úgy nézett ki, hogy itt tíz évig se lesz rend. Összetalálkoztunk egy barátommal, aki újságíró volt, és továbbra is valami lapot szerkesztett, amiért nyolc évet kapott 1956 után. Ez a Lőcsei Pál, vele volt az az illegális találkozóm annak idején a nyilas hatalomátvétel napján. Letolt minket a sárga földig, hogy mérnökök vagytok, hát miért nem mentek ki Nyugatra. És tulajdonképpen a tisztelt férjem, az benne is lett volna. Megint én voltam az, aki ragaszkodtam. Először is egy egyéves gyerekkel nem. Szóval nem gondoltam rá, hogy az jó lenne. Itt élem már le ezt az életet.

Engem borzasztóan foglalkoztatott az egész 1956-os dolog, és biztos, hogy részt vettem volna benne, ha nem egy éves a fiam. Nem óhajtottam visszalépni a pártba, a férjem mondta, hogy nem fogsz kapni munkát. Nem lesz ez, nem lesz az! És március 31-e volt a határidő, amíg vissza lehetett lépni 1957-ben. Én egy csomó mindenben egyetértettem azzal, ami 1956-ban történt, és tudtam, hogy lecsukták a Déryt Déry Tibor írót (1894–1977), aki 1956 októberében az írószövetség forradalmi bizottságának tagja volt, majd a bukás után nyíltan elutasította a Kádár-rendszert, 1957-ben tartóztatták le, és az úgynevezett íróperben 9 évi börtönbüntetésre ítélték. 1960-ban amnesztiával szabadult. – A szerk.. Ha mindenről nem is tudtam, de egy csomó mindenről értesültem. Kijöttek a XI. kerületi pártbizottságtól az utolsó napon, hogy lépjek be. De, mondom, énnekem más véleményem van. Mondom, lehetetlen dolog, hogy a Déry Tibort lefogják, hogy egyáltalán. Ezeknek az embereknek igazuk volt. Ezt nem lehet így megoldani, ezzel a kérdéssel. Mindegy. Nem érdekes, lépjek be a pártba! Ez a párt változni fog! Lehet különvéleményem – azt mondták. A későbbiekben ezt nagyon sokszor elmondtam a későbbi munkahelyeimen, hogy én úgy léptem csak vissza a pártba, hogy különvéleményem lehet. Hát sokat ért el az ember ezekkel!

Ez volt a legnehezebb, állást szerezni. Protekció kellett hozzá, a régi, egyetemi mozgalomból ismert valaki, aki a pártközpontban dolgozott. Az szerzett nekem állást, de egy elég rossz állás volt ez a Budapesti Cementipari Vállalatnál, a BUCEM-nél. Kútgyűrűket, mozaiklapokat meg ilyeneket gyártott, és ott műszaki osztályvezető lettem, de úgy, hogy elküldtek valakit, akinek ugyan nem volt semmilyen képesítése, ehhez nem is kellett, meg kell hogy mondjam. Nem egy nagy dolog ezeket a gyártmányokat gyártani, de azért küldték el, mert részt vett a forradalomban. Na ez nekem már nagyon rossz érzés volt, hogy én egy olyan helyébe megyek, de hát nem volt mit tennem. Volt egy főmérnököm, akinek soha mérnöki diplomája nem volt. Olyan elemet is csináltunk, amivel a tetőt le lehetett fedni, ami egy vasbeton rajz volt, és egyszerűen nem értette meg, még a rajzot se, annyira nem értett hozzá. De mindenbe beleszólt, főnökösödött. Az igazgató egy részeg munkáskáder volt. Igyekeztem minél hamarabb elkerülni, azt hiszem, összesen másfél évet dolgoztam ott.

És akkor a férjem segítségével, az első férjem segítségével, bekerültem a műszaki egyetemen egy akadémiai kutatócsoportba. Az egy egészen más légkör volt. Ott nagyon jól éreztem magam, csak nem volt nekem való a kutatási munka. Végeztem én, csináltam, könnyűbetonnal foglalkoztam, még le is doktoráltam belőle. Ennek ellenére én ezt nem nagyon szerettem csinálni. És az oktatás, a professzorom az nagyon rendes volt hozzám, és szeretett volna átvenni oktatói státuszba, adjunktusnak, én nem akartam, mert oktatni se szerettem. Annak ellenére mégis jól éreztem magam, mert hát szakemberek között dolgoztam, nem furkálódtak ellenem, megbecsültek. Nem volt semmiféle problémám, de tíz év múlva azért elég volt ebből. És akkor legalább, gondoltam, ha már a kutatásba bedolgoztam magam, akkor legalább egy olyan kutatóintézetbe megyek el, aminek kapcsolata van az iparral. Tíz évet voltam a műszaki egyetemen, ami arra volt jó, hogy teljesen megnyugodtam. Mert azért az építőipar az nem egy nyugtató szakma volt, de azt hiszem, most se az, soha nem olyan. És akkor kerültem az Építéstudományi Intézetbe, főmunkatárs lettem. És onnan mentem nyugdíjba 62 éves koromban, 1984-ben. És akkor végül sikerült kilépnem a pártból is. Megkaptam a negyvenéves tagsági igazolványt, egy papírlap. És bejelentettem, hogy én kilépek. Kérdezték, hogy miért. Mondom, elég volt. Én úgy léptem vissza, hogy különvéleményem lehetett, és taggyűlésen sok botrányt okoztam. Különösen amikor a Tömpe András öngyilkos lett. Ez egy érdekes ember volt. A második férjemmel volt jó barátságban, 19 éves korukban együtt buktak le, és azóta tartott a barátságuk, de ő soha nem volt Magyarországon. Csak valószínűsítjük, hogy ő valami hírszerző lehetett, különböző dél-amerikai meg mit tudom én, milyen országokban járt. Tény az, hogy egyszer itt volt nálunk a Brezsnyev uralma alatt, és borzalmas rosszakat mondott a Brezsnyevről. Szóval nagyon szidta, és elege volt, és mindenből elege volt. És valami könyvkiadóban egy politikai bizottsági tag, már azt se tudom, hogy az ki volt, megvádolta őt, és rágalmazta különböző dolgokkal. Ő tisztázta magát, de aztán annyira elege volt az egészből, hogy főbe lőtte magát.  És ez egy borzasztó élmény volt számunkra, a férjemmel együtt. És én a taggyűlésen felvetettem, hogy hova vezet ez. És minden rosszat elmondtam az akkori rendszerről. De hát soha ebből nekem nem lett semmi bajom, mert mondani akkor lehetett már, bár nem történt semmi. És azt mondtam, hogy elég. Azt mondták, de mégis mondjak egy indokot, hogy miért lépek ki. Hát többek között azért, mert még nem rehabilitálták mindig Nagy Imrét. Az egy nagy gazság volt, az egész kivégzésük. Én egyébként a Gimes Miklóst, akit vele együtt végeztek ki, azt én jól ismertem, még gyerekkoromból, fiatal koromból, mert ő is lejött oda mindig a Körösökhöz nyaralni, ahol mi nyaraltunk. És innen volt az ismeretség. Szóval én tudtam, hogy az egy gazság, akkor már, amikor megtörtént a kivégzés. És attól kezdve nekem borzalmas volt az végig. Szóval az a helyzet, hogy én 1984-ben azt mondtam, ha ma még odáig nem tudtunk eljutni, hogy a Nagy Imre-ügyet rendezzük, és rehabilitálják, én ennek a pártnak nem óhajtok tagja lenni. Akkor kiküldtek a XI. kerületi pártközpontból egy fiatalembert, hogy győzzön meg engem, hogy az én negyvenéves párttagságom mégiscsak valami. Hát nem tudott meggyőzni. Úgyhogy én végül azóta nem vagyok párttag. És el is döntöttem, soha, semmiféle pártnak nem lennék tagja.

Na most a nyugdíj. Csodálkoztak nagyon. Én úgy mentem nyugdíjba, hogy még két évig dolgoztam mint nyugdíjas. De ugyanazokat kellett csinálni, tanulmányokat, amiből úgy éreztem, hogy soha, semmi nem valósul meg. Szóval voltak jó ötleteim is, amiket lehetett volna, amiket például kint láttam, tanulmányutak kapcsán, és meg lehetett volna valósítani itthon. De soha, semmiből nem lett semmi. Mert ezeket csak beadtuk, akkor fizettek érte, persze nem nekem, hanem az intézetnek. És a minisztérium el se olvasta szerintem, beadhattam volna akármit. Na most elegem volt, és azt mondtam, hogy én nyugdíjba megyek. De senki nem értette meg, legfőképpen a második férjem, aki a halála napjáig – 79 éves volt – dolgozott. És a munkatársam se, akivel ma is jó viszonyban vagyok. Nem értette meg, mert én tényleg nagyon aktív valaki voltam. És mikor együtt jártunk vidékre, szakvéleményeket meg nem tudom, mit készíteni, akkor megismerte az én munkatempómat is. Egyszerűen képtelen volt elhinni, hogy én tudok úgy élni. De tudtam. Tudtam, egész jó volt. Végül is, nem is tudom, hát háziasszony voltam. Szakmai dolgokkal nem foglalkoztam. Abszolút meg voltam így is. Hát 62 évesen azt mondtam, elég volt ebben az életben, és jöjjenek a fiatalok. Szóval nem éreztem azt, hogy énnekem most föltétlenül el kell ott foglalnom egy helyet.

Édesanyám lent maradt Békéscsabán egészen 1948-ig. Akkor eladta a lakást, és itt vettünk egy közös lakást, aminek aztán nem bírtuk a költségét, és el kellett adni. Ez a Böszörményi úton egy nagyon szép lakás volt, kétszobás lakás. A családból én kerestem legelőször, mikor 1949-ben elmentem dolgozni az Ipartervbe. De mint szigorló mérnöknek nem fizettek túl sokat, az egész családot eltartani abból nem tudtam. Volt, hogy édesanyám is elment állásba, egy államosított varrodába, de nem bírta. Meg volt szabva, hogy mennyit kell normában csinálni. Ő kipróbálta, és rájött, hogy ennyit nem lehet rendesen megcsinálni. És akkor otthagyta. Szóval ő nem tudott így alkalmazkodni, úgyhogy nem volt nyugdíja. Semmi. Az öcsém villamosmérnökként végzett, és akkor indult be a Miskolci Nehézipari Egyetem 1949-ben. Ő ott tanársegéd lett, aztán adjunktus, docens, szóval ott volt oktató. Aztán eladtuk a Böszörményi úti lakást is, és abból lett nekem egy bérlakás, egy garzon, édesanyámnak meg az öcsémnek pedig egy kétszobás lakása. Ez 1950-ben volt, akkor költöztem a Siroki utcába. Egy szoba, hall és egy teakonyha. De én nagyon szerettem, meg voltam vele elégedve. Az utcára nézett, de ez egy vékony, keskeny utca. A sirok az egyébként keskenyt jelent szlovákul, az egy szlovák szó. [A szlovák ’sirok’ szó jelentése: széles. Az utca a Heves megyei Sirok településről kapta a nevét. – A szerk.] És ott dübörgött a villamos, mert ott fordult meg a 6-os villamos, amikor jött a Karinthy Frigyes úton, akkor a Verpeléti úton, befordult, és ki, a Móricz Zsigmond körtérre. Engem az a villamos nem zavart, de amikor 1956 után nem járt a villamos, és szörnyű csend volt, akkor erre a csendre mindig felébredtem.

1961-ben költöztünk el. Én nagyon rajta voltam, hogy elcseréljük egy kétszobásra, de nem sikerült. Ez egy bérlakás volt, és nagyon nehéz volt elcserélni. Végül a Schönherz Zoltán utcában Ma Október huszonharmadika utca. – A szerk. sikerült egy kétszobás, konyhás. Olyan jellegű volt, mint a panellakások, de nem az volt. A Skálával, a mostani budai Skálával pont szemben, a hatodik emeleten laktunk. Egy új, háború utáni lakás volt. Jól meg voltunk, mert az elég volt, egy szobában lakott a fiam, egy szoba meg a mienk volt. Akkor nem voltak ilyen nagy igények.

Én a háború után sokáig nem akartam semmiféle komolyabb kapcsolatot. Hozzá kell tennem, hogy komolyabb kapcsolatot, mert azért voltak kapcsolataim a felszabadulás után. Vártam vissza az élettársamat. Őt azért is vártam vissza, mert minden nap az újságokban megjelent, hogy kik jöttek haza fogságból, és én reménykedtem, hogy ő haza fog jönni. Aztán idővel ez a remény egyre inkább elmúlt. Akkor lett komolyabb kapcsolatom az első férjemmel, aki szintén a műszaki egyetemre járt. Talán nem véletlen, hogy ő is villamosmérnöknek készült, mint az élettársam. Kerestem valamit, ami összeköt. Közben 1947-ben megismerkedtem az Új Építészet Körében a második férjemmel, Perczel Károllyal, aki akkor már nős ember volt, a felesége Párizsban élt egy másik emberrel, egy később nagyon híressé vált magyar szobrászművésszel.

A második férjem, Perczel Károly 1913-ban született, és 19 éves korában már elítélték itt, Budapesten, amikor voltak lebukások, amikor a statáriális eljárások voltak 1931-ben, a biatorbágyi viadukt felrobbantása után bevezetett statáriumról van szó. – A szerk.. Akkor a Műszaki Egyetemre járt itt, Budapesten, és mikor kijött a börtönből, kirúgták rögtön. Elment Brünnbe, először ott tanult, aztán ott sem folytathatta, amikor a németek megszállták Csehszlovákiát, mert ő is zsidó származású volt, és aztán Zürichben szerzett diplomát. Nem is jött haza, hanem Franciaországba ment ki. Megnősült, és a háború alatt, 1942-ben született a lánya. Ő végig párttag volt, és részt vett a francia ellenállásban. 1946-ban már itthon volt. Az Építésügyi Minisztériumban [Építési és Közmunkaügyi Minisztérium] meg a Fővárosi Közmunkák Tanácsánál dolgozott, és ott mondták neki, hogy magyarosítsa a nevét. És akkor lett Perczel. Eredetileg Preiser volt.

Na most, amikor összeismerkedtünk, rögtön az volt, hogy feleségül akart venni. Én semmiképpen nem akartam. Végül a felesége hazajött, és akkor a mi kapcsolatunk megszakadt. Egészen soha, mert amikor lefogták a Rajk-perben, rögtön tudomást szereztem róla, 1949-ben. Az, hogy énnekem nem lett semmi bántódásom, és nem fogtak le akkor engem is, azt neki köszönhetem, mert ő nem árulta el, hogy mi kapcsolatban voltunk. Félt, hogy esetleg én is valamilyen formában lebukok [Perczel Károly öt évet töltött börtönben, 1949 és 1954 között. – A szerk.] Közben én férjhez mentem.

1967-ben találkoztunk újra. És valahogyan ez úgy végződött, hogy úgy döntöttünk, hogy mindketten elválunk. A fiam akkor 12 éves volt, már megértette. Ennek több mint harminc éve már. És tulajdonképpen a második férjemmel nagyon harmonikus életet éltünk. Szóval sok nehézség volt, mert sokszor volt az, hogy például a karácsonyt én egyedül töltöttem, mert ő elment a családjához, amit én természetesnek találtam.

Rengeteget utaztunk a második férjemmel. Mind a ketten szerettünk utazni. Soha nem gondoltam volna, hogy annyit fogok megismerni a világból. Nagyon sokat kirándultunk, nem csak utaztunk, hanem kirándultunk is. 55 éves koromban megmásztam a Gerlachfalvi-csúcsot, az a Tátra legmagasabb csúcsa [A Magas-Tátra és egyben a Kárpátok legmagasabb pontja 2655 méter magas. – A szerk.]. Akkor a férjem 64 éves volt, és jött velünk. Ő is, meg a két fiú gyerekünk, az övé meg az enyém, négyesben voltunk ott. És azután is, ahányszor utazni voltunk. Hát például úgy kellett lebeszélnem, hogy az Olimposzt megmásszuk. Feléig eljutottunk, de ott mondtam, hogy ha mi felmegyünk a csúcsra, nézd meg, olyan felhős, nem fogjuk látni Zeuszt, biztos, de az is biztos, hogy visszajövet még egyszer a turistaházban kell aludni. Tehát ennyi nap veszteség. Úgyhogy nagy nehezen sikerült őt lebeszélni, csak a feléig jutottunk el az Olimposznak. De ahol voltunk, ott mindenütt hegyet is kellett mászni mindig, ha volt hegy. Aznap is, amikor meghalt, téli nap volt, csak sétálni mentünk. Az január másodika volt, és ide fölmentünk a Szabadság-hegyre. Ahol a templom van, ott történt, hogy ott leültünk egy padra. Ott még arról beszélgettünk, hogy az ő unokái másnap idejöttek volna, és hogy visszük őket szánkózni. És ahogy felálltunk és elindultunk, ő egyszerűen csak összeesett. Még magához tért, és mondtam, hogy mentőt kell hívni, mert ott jöttek turisták, és kérdezték, hogy segíthetnek-e. Nem, nem, nem kell, én jól leszek, le tudok még menni Budakeszire – mondta. Nem tudott lemenni. Végül kijöttek a mentők. Onnan tudtam a templomból telefonálni, illetve nem a templomból, hanem ott van egy ilyen lelkészi ház, onnan telefonáltam. És még aznap meghalt, szívinfarktusban [Perczel Károly 1992-ben halt meg. – A szerk.]. Úgyhogy én is valami ilyen halált szeretnék majd, nem olyat, hogy ágyban, párnák közt. És akkor egy fél év múlva aztán jött az unoka elfoglaltság. Az volt a szerencse, hogy akkor a menyem, az ment hamar dolgozni, és én beálltam főfoglalkozású nagymamának. Azt szoktam mondani, hogy nem voltam főfoglalkozású anyuka soha, de lettem főfoglalkozású nagymama, és azt nagy élvezettel csináltam. Minden nap lementem. Ők a Diósárokban laknak, és hát estéig ott voltam.

A fiamat nem neveltük zsidónak, de egész kis korától kezdve én fontosnak tartottam, hogy tudja. Ezt nagyon fontosnak tartottam, mert akkor sem volt olyan világ, hogy ne lett volna antiszemitizmus, legfeljebb csak a szőnyeg alá söpörték. Például elmondtam, hogy miért nincs neki nagyapja, mert a másik részről se volt. Elmondtam, hogy mi történt. Egyszer, amikor volt az április 4-i ünnepség, még emlékszem, vittem óvodába és megkérdezte, hogy most a nagyapának a sírjánál is megemlékeznek. Mondom, hát nem hiszem. De jó lenne!

Minden évben volt a fiamnak karácsony. Ez természetes volt. Volt egy év, már nem tudom, mikor, hogy nem lehetett karácsonyfát kapni, akkor én megoldottam úgy, hogy szereztem ilyen ágakat, fenyőágakat. Keresztülhúztam egy spárgát a fiam szobáján, és arra erősítettem, és ott voltak a díszek. És ez annyira tetszett neki, hogy a következő évben is azt kérte, hogy úgy legyen. Én nem is szoktam tudni, hogy mikor van a zsidó újév [lásd: Ros Hásáná]. Most már bemondják a rádióban, és onnan tudom, de nem tudtuk. Nem nagyon foglalkoztunk ezzel.

A fiamnak még kevesebbet jelent a zsidó származása, mint nekem. A felesége is keresztény nő, ennek ellenére azért mind a ketten megegyeznek abban, hogy azért a gyerek, az tudja, hogy zsidó származású, és tudja, hogy mik történtek. De ezt ő már mint történelmet nézi.

Én nem vágyok Izraelbe. Hogy megnézzem, arra igen, mert mondják, hogy nagyon érdekes és szép ország, de az, hogy kimenjek Izraelbe élni, azt nem. Azért volt, aki a rokonok közül volt Izraelben, ketten is, de távoli rokonom. Egy másod-unokatestvérem, akit Svájcból kiutasítottak, és elment Izraelbe, ott angol katona lett. És mint angol katona harcolt, aztán hazajött, és ebből sok baja is lett az 1950-es években. A másik pedig kint élt Izraelben. Hamarabb ment ki, tehát a deportálások előtt, nem tudom, hányban. Szintén egy másod- vagy harmad-unokatestvér. Ilyenek voltak, de távoli rokonok.

Nem tartoztam azok közé, akik mikor kellett, elítélték Izraelt [lásd: hatnapos háború]. Nem, egyszerűen nem értettem, ami ott van. Nem voltunk rendesen tájékoztatva azokról a dolgokról, úgyhogy nem foglaltam állást. Egyetlen egy lelkiismeret-furdalásom van ezzel kapcsolatban, az én lengyel barátnőm, amikor a gyerekét kiadta a gettóból ennek a textilmérnök feleségének, szegény úgy borult a nyakamba sírva, hogy soha többé nem fogja látni. Szóval az is egy ilyen örök emlék marad számomra. Valószínűleg ő megírta még az Izraelben lévő bátyjának – aki még Lengyelországból ment ki –, hogy nálam érdeklődjön a gyerek iránt. És én kaptam is egy levelet. Akkor már a gyereket Amerikába vitték. A férfi, ez a textilmérnök zsidó volt. Voltak saját gyerekeik is, egy nagyon rendes házaspár volt. És valószínűleg jól boldogultak, nem tudom, mert teljesen megszakadt a kapcsolat. Mielőtt elmentek Amerikába, eljöttek elköszönni, és semmi több. És én a barátnőm bátyjának a levelére, disznó módon, nem válaszoltam, mert nem akartam megírni, hogy van, mert én akkor úgy ítéltem meg, hogy Izraelben veszélyes élni, és az a gyerek most mégiscsak jó, biztonságos helyen van Amerikában, és nem biztos, hogy jó lenne neki egy ilyen változás, de hát ebben nem volt jogom nekem dönteni. Utólag így látom.

[Tevan Zsófiával és Perczel Károllyal életútinterjú készült az Oral History Archívum (Az 1956-os Magyar Forradalom Történetének Dokumentációs és Kutatóintézete Közalapítvány) számára is, mindkét interjút Szabóné Dér Ilona készítette (Perczel Károly, No. 44, 1986–1987. 380 oldal; Tevan Zsófia, No. 57, 1987, 80 oldal). – A szerk.]

Tevan Rezső 1944-es naplórészlete

és Andor bátyjához írt levele

Édesapámat, Tevan Rezső építészmérnököt az ország német nácik
általi, 1944 március 19.-i megszállása után internálták. Először a
békéscsabai rendőrség fogta el, majd rendőri felügyelet alá helyezve
hazaengedték, pár nap múlva a német hatóságok tartoztatták le többek
között bátyjával, Andorral együtt, és Debrecenbe internálták. A
naplórészlet e néhány nap történetét, apukám gondolatait tartalmazza.
Később Bécsbe vitték őket, ahol apukámat egy építészmérnöki irodában
dolgoztatták, Andor bácsit pedig, másutt napszámosként. Akkor nem
gondoltuk, hogy az internálással nagyobb esélyük volt a túlélésre, mint a
többi békéscsabai zsidónak, akiknek nagy részét, köztük édesanyjukat is
Auschwitzba deportálva megölték. Andor bácsi haza tudott jönni,
apukámat azonban aranyeres operációja után a bergen-belseni lágerbe
vitték, ahol 1945 márciusban vagy április elején tífuszban meghalt.

További megjegyzéseimet a megfelelő helyen, ugyanezzel a betűtípussal teszem meg. 

                                                                                                               Tevan György

I.

 Az áprilisi napsütés a párás levegőn keresztül játszadozva
csillogtatta a kert fenyőleveleit, melyen az imént esett eső még nem
száradt fel. .. Az építész irodája ablakából nézte. (Ideiglenesen a
nappaliban volt az iroda.) Hányszor gyönyörködött már ebben, és mégis
mindig úgy nézte, mintha először látta volna a fény és árnyék e
különösen szép játékát. Ma mintha még több érzést is keltett fel benne,
mint máskor. A háború ötödik évében a szenvedő tömegekre gondolt,
melyeknek bajai mindig könnyel töltötték be szemét, ha rájuk gondol. A
fenyő tűlevelein fennakadt esőcseppe(cs)kéket is végtelen sok
könnycseppnek látja most.

     Szombat délután van, máskor ilyenkor a weekendre gondol, de most
már vége az ilyen várakozásnak, egy hónap óta itt vannak a németek!
 Különben is, asztalosmesterét várja, ki új telep építésével
foglalkozik, és annak tervével bízta meg őt. A vázlattal elkészült és
most óhajtotta vele megbeszélni. Ilyen alkalomkor szerette meghittebb
embereit is magához hívni és azok véleményét is meghallgatni. Most is
így volt. Ott voltak már az egyszerű, becsületes emberek, az
egyszerűségnek és becsületességnek azzal az arcra kiült jellegével, amit
egy munkában eltöltött élet kölcsönöz az embernek. És most megérkezett
az asztalos is. Készséggel készítette el a tervvázlatot részére, bár
tudta, hogy a világégés után minden megváltozik és valószínű, hogy
nagyobb üzem magántulajdonban nem marad, mégis nem akarta egy ember
élete ábrándjait eloszlatni és ezért elkészítette a tervet. Együtt ül
már a nagytanács.- Az építész magyaráz: így gondolta a munkatermüket,
így a gépműhelyt, így az anyagraktárt és ide előre a főnöki és műszaki
irodát. „Igen, ez már más, mint ahogyan mi terveztük,-mondja az asztalos
elragadtatással. -Itt minden át van gondolva, a munka folyamatában
nincs zökkenés, mert egymás után jönnek a szükséges helyiségek. Hiába
másképen fog hozzá az, aki mestere valaminek !” Szerette hallani az
építész  ha tudását dicsérik, nem volt mentes az apróbb emberi 
hibáktól, szótlanul hallgatta az asztalos áradozását. Elmerengett jóleső
érzésben és kinézett a kertre néző ablakon. Mi az ? Talán a szeme
káprázik? De nem, hisz már hallja is őket. Ott jönnek: Egy német tiszt,
német katona és magyar rendőr. „Itt vannak a németek, bizonyára a lakás
miatt,” mondta látogatóinak, bár érezte, hogy nem erről lesz szó.
Felugrott és elébük ment az előszobába, ajtót nyitni. Nevét hallja. Maga
az? Kérdi a német tiszt. „Igen, én vagyok.” „Velünk jön azonnal.”
„Miért?” „Ki fogják hallgatni.” „Igen- mondta - megyek átöltözni” és
indult lakásába, ahova mindhárman követték őt. Bejutva lakásába
feleségét találja szokásos foglalatosságában, ki rémült arccal figyel
fel férje nyomában hallható három pár csizma kemény dobbanására. „Itt
vannak értem a németek”- csak ennyit mondott és szekrényéhez sietett,
ahol az ez alkalomra már előre elkészített ruhája és készenlétbe hozott
hátizsákja volt. - Öltözködés közben a németek közvetlen melléje álltak.
Fegyver és kommunista iratok után érdeklődtek, majd a tiszt átnézett a
többi szobába is, hol aggódó felesége tört németséggel kérdi, hogy hová
és miért viszik el férjét. „Csak rövid időre kihallgatni, hozzon
iratokat magával,” mondja a tiszt, látszólagos jóindulattal. „Na
gyerünk, gyerünk” szólal meg  egyszerre nyersen egy durva hang magyarul.
A német katona volt, kinél csak most figyelte meg sapkáján a halálfejet
és fekete hajtókáján a hírhedt SS-jelet. „Gyerünk, gyerünk” ismétli
szolgaian a magyar rendőr, mutatva azt, hogy ő is beleegyezését adja a
történő dolgokhoz, kifejezve ezzel jellemzően az egész magyar
közigazgatás magatartását. „Vigyek magammal takarót?” kérdi a közben
visszatért tiszttől. „Csak egy köpenyeget, hisz visszajön nemsokára, de
ügyeljen, hogy a zsidócsillag ne hiányozzon ruhájáról.” - Elkészült,
sebtében búcsút vesz feleségétől, megcsókolta azzal az érzéssel, hogy
talán utoljára. Hamar végzett, nem akart elérzékenyülni. Átsietett
irodájába, követve őt a németek. „Isten velük uraim, le vagyok
tartóztatva” szólt és kisietett, otthagyva az ámulattól szólni nem tudó
munkatársait. Nem értették, hogyan lehet valakinek a lakásába betörni és
elvinni, ilyet ők előzőleg sosem láttak, és a német rendszerről szóló
híreket részben felnagyított dolgoknak hitték, mert hiszen csak bűnöző
embereket lehet letartóztatni. Felesége kétségbeesetten követte őt az
udvaron keresztül, vitéz úrnak szólítva az SS-ruhába bújtatott sváb
kölyköt. Ő nyugodtan haladt a csoport előtt, mintha csak önként ment
volna, az utcai kiskapunál megállott és udvariasan előre akarta
bocsátani a németet, ki azonban intett, hogy csak menjen ő előre. Ekkor
ébredt csak valóban tudatára, hogy őrizetben van, és neki kell előre
mennie, mert ő fogoly. Az utcán szép autó várja, beültették a hátsó
ülésre, melléje az  SS-legényt , míg a tiszt lemarad és a kezében lévő
gépírásos cédulák között kutatva egy újabb áldozat lakhelyét tudakolja  a
rendőrtől. Az autó elindul, a kisváros utcáján kíváncsi  szemek
kísérik. Felesége összetörten vonul be a házba.  „Merre kell a
rendőrségre menni?” kérdi a sofőr. Útba igazítja és egykettőre a város
főterén vannak. Kiszáll s az SS-legénytől kísérve besiet a városházára. A
rendőrségi szobában egy magyar rendőrtiszt, egy rosszarcú, szúrós szemű
civil és az írógép mellett egy német katona van. A rendőrtiszt
viselkedésével mindjárt tudtára adja, hogy ő ebben a dologban egyáltalán
nincs benne. A civil érdeklődésére bemondja személyi adatait, amiről
német pontossággal kartotékot állítanak ki. Kivégzés tehát egyelőre nem
lesz, gondolta, mert akkor minek ez a kartotékozás.-Várja, hogy további
kihallgatásra kerül a sor, de e helyett rendőrt hívnak, aki átveszi őt,
elszednek mindent, ami a zsebében volt és kiállítják az őrizetbe
vételről szóló jegyzőkönyvet. „No mérnök úr, most jöjjön, megyünk le a
pincébe” szól jóindulattal a foglár. Különös érzéssel megy végig a
folyosón, regényekben olvasott jelenetek jutnak eszébe, és már meg is
állnak egy vasrácsos folyosó rész előtt, mely a záron kívül láncos
lakattal is be van zárva. A pince síri csendjét a lánc zöreje és zár
kattogása töri meg, tovább mennek és egy kis két személyes cellaajtót
nyitnak meg, ahová betessékelik. Az ajtót kívülről rázárják, belül nincs
is kilincse. Nagyot csattan a külső kétszeres toló retesz, majd hallja a
foglár lépteit, lánccsörgést és zárkattogást... Utána pedig ismét a
síri csend. Hát most már végleg itt van! Levette köpenyét és lefeküdt a
deszkapriccsre. Különös, hogy az ember mennyire fél az elkövetkezhető
dolgoktól, és milyen különös, hogy mennyire nyugodtan veszi azután, ha
az, amitől félt, be is következik. Ő is így volt. Teljes lelki
nyugalommal feküdt hanyatt, gondolataiba merülve, átgondolva az utóbbi
hetek történetét. Kezdve ama bizonyos hétfőn estétől, amikor sógorneje
Pestről telefonon hívta és közölte, hogy sógorát előző nap az alig hogy
megérkezett német megszállók elhurcolták. Izgatottan tette le a kagylót
és sógornője közlését intelemnek véve kész volt a tervvel, hogy egy
időre eltűnik itthonról. - Örült, amikor felesége is ezt tanácsolta
neki. Másnap reggel biciklire ült és a hideg szeles időben húgához ment,
aki 25 km-nyi távolságban lévő kis faluban lakott. Itt töltött majdnem
egy hetet, de mert nem bírta a bujkálást, hazament. És úgy gondolta,
hogy bármi jön, elébe néz a dolgoknak. Ebben az időben előszeretettel
olvasta Szokrátész védőbeszédét, nagy lelki megnyugvással szívta magába
gyönyörű fejtegetéseit a halálról, és az öreg Szokrátész segítette át őt
a lelki válságán, - Lassan visszatért a mindennapos élethez és élt úgy,
hogy már nem foglalkozott önmagával, élte tovább gyerekeivel és
feleségével azt az igaz baráti életet, amit csak ők tudtak kellően
értékelni. „Ha a háborúnak vége lesz és eljön az új világrend és elérjük
azt, amiért az egész életünkön keresztül rajongtunk, akkor az új
kollektív életben nem lesznek gondjaink, nem kell azt sem látni, hogy a
tömegek jogtalanul elnyomásban élnek...” így magyarázgatott sokszor. És
ezt magyarázta éppen azon a hajnalon is, amikor a cselédlány
bekopogtatott hálószobájukba, hogy „a mérnök urat egy rendőr keresi.”
Hát mégis eljöttek érte… „Parancsom van a mérnök urat elővezetni.” Szólt
a belépő rendőr „De tessék csak nyugodtan felöltözni, megmosdani,
megreggelizni, nekem van időm várni” szólt jóindulattal. Mikor
elkészült, kedélyesen elbeszélgetve mentek be a rendőrségre egy szobába,
ahol már vagy 30 sorstársa szorongott, és akik nagy részét a baloldali
politikai magatartásukról ismert, de csodálatosképpen olyanok is voltak,
akiknek a mozgalmakhoz semmi köze se volt. Ilyen volt városának egy
ismert zsidó ügyvédje, aki szörnyű siránkozással ült ott, míg a többi,
és főleg az öntudatos szocialisták tréfálva várták az elkövetkezhető
eseményeket.  Legjobban bátyja nyugodt viselkedése lepte őt meg. Míg a
kihallgatásokban rá került a sor, többször látogatók jöttek, kikkel
nyugodtan el lehetett beszélgetni és végre megjöttek övéi is elhozva
felszerelt, útra elkészített hátizsákját. Délután két óra volt, mikor
kihallgatása után szabadon engedték és írásbeli határozattal  rendőri
felügyelet alá helyezték. Boldogan ment feleségével haza, az első
percekben azt gondolva, hogy ezzel elintéződött ügye. Csak másnaptól
kezdve volt olyan érzése, mintha csak szabadságon volna a fogházból, és
úgy látszik, hogy ez az érzése nem csalta őt meg, mert most már itt van
végleg és komolyan egyedül egy rendőr fogdában és nem a kedélyes 30
ember között... Ezeket gondolta és felállva padjára kinézett a magasan
elhelyezett börtönablakon, melyen a nap utolsó sugarai fénynyalábban
özönlöttek. - Nem akart szemének hinni, bátyját és az ügyvédet kíséri a
német SS-legény. - Vajon hová viszik őket? -Visszafeküdt és várta a
fejleményeket. Valójában még alig telt el 2 perc, mikor óráknak tűnő
hosszú, sokfelé cikázó gondolataiból a csendet lánc- és lakatcsörgés és
reteszcsattanás töri meg. „Szevasztok” üdvözli a belépő bátyját és
ügyvédjét a priccsről felugorva. „No úgy látszik, megint együtt
vagyunk.” Meglepetéssel vesznek tudomást róla, majd elbeszélik, hogyan
kerültek ide. „Nálam szigorú házkutatást tartottak,” szólt bátyja. „a
szobából mindenkit kitessékeltek, és amikor az ajtóban meg mertünk
jelenni, odakiáltott a tiszt: Schiessen Sie hinaus die Juden” (Rúgja ki a
zsidókat.) így és hasonló módon kedveskedtek neki egész idő alatt. Az
ügyvéd, ki most sokkal nyugodtabb volt, mint előző előállításánál,
szintén elmesélte, hogy hogyan került ide. Még el se készült az
elbeszéléssel és már újabb lánccsörgés, kattanás volt hallható, ismét
egy újabb áldozat és ez így ismétlődött huszonegyszer egymás után.
Huszonketten voltunk már a kis kétszemélyes cellában, mikor az őrmester
egy újabb cellát nyitott, és tizenegyet átküldött az új cellába. A
belépésnél majd mindegyik többé-kevésbé nyugodt volt, sőt voltak, kik
mosolyogva léptek be, de amint kisült, ez csak a zavar mosolya volt. A
kispolgár zavara, hogy ő a rendes ember ide került. „Szegény feleségem”,
„Szegény gyermekem”- sóhajtoztak- „csak őket sajnálom”, pedig mindegyik
csak önmagát veszítette el teljesen. Hogy háború van, olvasták, hogy
zsidókat ütnek agyon nyugaton, és csupán ezért nem lettek a német
rendszernek hívei, de csak olvasták, és nem gondolkoztak a dolgokon.
Imponált nekik még így is a német szervezés és a német katona és nem
tudták, hogy egyszer ezt a saját hátukon is érezni fogják. Fogalmuk se
volt róla, hogy mi idézte valójában elő a háborút és nem tudták azt se,
hogy 1914 óta élnek háborúban. Mint ahogy 1914-ben, a békében élő
polgárt felkészületlenül érte a katasztrófa, úgy nem tudta most, hogy
még mindig benne van és még nem történt meg a nagy leszámolás. Ilyen
emberekkel került össze s így mindegyik egy pár percnyi ottlét után jött
csak rá, hogy vele mi történt és csak azután kezdte sóhajtozva övéit
emlegetni, teljesen elveszítve a talajt maga alól.„Az anyjuk istenit,
engem bizony nem fognak megölni, mert itt ez a kés, mondja a mészáros,
én csak értem a mesterségemet és a szívemet is el tudom találni. „Csak
mérget tudtam volna magammal hozni” mondja a másik. „Mit érnek vele, ha
magukat megölik” - szólalt meg ő - „a halál az megtalálja az embert
bármikor, és csak az az igazi ember, aki vállalja a halálig vezető utat
is.” Kicsit meghökkentek, mikor ugyanezt hallották a bátyja részéről is,
ő részükről, kik a városban istentagadó kommunistáknak voltak
bélyegezve. „Hát ti a hitetekkel csak ideáig jutottatok?” kérdi az
ortodoxtól, aki már az isten nem létezésénél tartott kétségbeesésében.
Igen, ide jutottak ők, mert még a vallásos hitük is csak átvett szokás
volt, és nem a belsőből jövő. - Elszégyellve magukat elhallgattak, és a
mély csendet ajtó retesz csattogás töri meg. „Urak, itt vannak a
hozzátartozók, elhozták a vacsorát” - szól a belépő őrmester. „Gyerünk
urak, ki a folyósóra, és fogyasszák el jó étvággyal. - Hát maga mit
kesereg itt”- szól rá az egyik hivatalnokra- „mintha már a siralomházban
volna. Gyerünk ki, itt a felesége, és legyen jókedvű.. Nincs itt semmi
baj.” Kimentek mindannyian, és meghatódva, könnyek között üdvözölték
hozzátartozóikat, azok jelenlétében fogyasztva el a vacsorát. A
hozzátartozók mind nyugodtaknak látszottak, és ez megnyugtatta kissé
őket, nem vették észre, hogy asszonyos ösztönnel megérezték azt, hogy
hogyan kell viselkedniük megnyugtatásukra. - Ő is kiment, felesége és
nagy lánya meg fia várták. Erős akart maradni, mosolyogva üdvözölte
őket, megölelték egymást és összecsókolóztak. Nyugodt hangulatban
elbeszélgettek, mialatt a jobbnál jobb falatokat nyelte és a vacsora
után még egy pohár bort is ivott együtt feleségével. „Tudod-e, hogy
tulajdonképpen örülni kéne a történő dolgoknak, ha nem volnánk érdekelve
benne ennyire. Hát itt tartanak már!” szólt. - Mikor elváltak felesége
így szólt: „Ne félj semmitől, és miattunk ne legyen gondod, mi
megleszünk, és ha veled valami történik, akkor én csak a bosszúnak
élek”.  Megcsókolták egymást és megcsókolták mindenki szemeláttára, ők,
akik eddig más előtt sose csókolóztak, - de ez most természetes volt.
„Holnap, ha itt lesztek, még hozunk reggelit.” Szólt vissza a lépcsőről
felesége. Ő beleegyezőleg bólintott és merengve nézett a
lépcsőfordulónál eltűnő családja után. -  „ No uraim, jól laktunk, most
menjünk vissza , és lefekvés előtt egyszer még kijöhetnek dolgaikra.”
Bekísérte az őrmester  őket a cellába, ki az ajtóban még soká állva
maradt. Nem voltak még ilyen foglyai, hisz ezek mind személyes ismerős
„urak” voltak. „No nem baj - szólt - nem tart ez  örökké, vége lesz
ennek is.” Elbúcsúzott és kiment, bezárva maga után az ajtót. - „Ezek a
rendőrök mind milyen rendes emberek” állapították meg mindannyian.
Hozzáfogtak fekvőhelyeik elkészítéséhez.  Mindenkinek jutott egy
félméternyi hely a padlón és oda terítették pokrócaikat. Nem vetkőztek
le, mert úgy gondolták, hogy éjszaka elviszik őket. Lefeküdtek, és
nemsokára csak szuszogás és hortyogás volt hallható néha-néha egy-egy 
mély sóhajjal, melyhez a sóhajtozó halál utáni vágyakozása nyert
kifejezést. A kis ablakon nem jött elég levegő, de ahhoz elég volt, hogy
a cellát lehűtse, és az alvást megzavarja. Ő is feküdt, szemét le se
hunyva hallotta, amikor a nagytemplom a 9 órát ütötte, mikor a városháza
kaput bezárták, mikor az ügyeletes rendőrtiszt jött, és hallotta, mikor
a négy órát is ütötte. Ismét átgondolta a történteket és úgy érezte,
hogy fellépésével sikerült sorstársainak bizalmát megnyerni. Ez az
érzése határozta azután meg további viselkedését és ez az érzése őt
magát is könnyebben vezette át válságos pillanatokon. - Mikor világos
lett, és már úgy érezték, hogy fel lehet kelni, elkiáltotta az egyik
magát, hogy ébresztő, és folytatódott a beszélgetés, ahol előző nap
abbamaradt. „El kellett volna menni otthonról” volt az egyik véleménye.
„Hiábavaló lenne, mert úgyis megfognak” szólt a másik. - Egyszer csak
ajtózár csattogás hangzék, és belép a város közismert Feri bácsija, kit
nagy gaudiummal fogadnak. „Hát megérkezett?” kérdik. „Maga is itt van
kis mérnököm, mi a véleménye a dologról” szólt az építészhez a belépő.
Az építész már ismerte régen, és nem is válaszolt komolyan a kérdésére,
az öreg kissé hóbortos volt. „Oh én bolond, oh én marha, böhéme, böhéme”
bökdöste a homlokát összeszorított ujjaival. „Itt a kezemben az utazási
engedély Komlósra, én elutazom, akkor senki többet nem keres. Lám a
Naftoli sem jött be, ő elbújt, egyedül neki van esze. Mindnyájan böhémék
vagyunk” A kis köpcös öreg jó hangulatot keltett a társaságban és
felvetődött, hogy hogyan lehetne kiszabadulni. Az a vélemény alakult ki,
hogy senki külön akciót saját érdekében nem kezdhet, hanem mindenki
összeköttetését csak a közösség részére használhatja fel. - Úgy
képzelték, hogy szabadulásuk pénzzel elintézhető lesz, és türelmetlen
üzeneteket küldtek a hitközségük zsidótanácsához. Feri bácsi közben a
maga szabadulásán törte fejét és falujából ellenforradalom alatti
magatartásáról szóló igazolvány beszerzésén törte a fejét és annak
konceptusát állította össze, egyik ügyvédtől a másikhoz szaladgálva a
cellában. „De Feri bácsi, mit fog csinálni ilyen igazolvánnyal, ha
bejönnek az oroszok?” húzták őt a többiek. „Sie haben Recht (Igazuk
van), két példányban iratom meg, az egyik példányból az ellenforradalom
kimarad,” mondta komolyan, újabb derültséget keltve. - Így telt el az
egész nap, hol derülten, hol szorongó érzésekkel, és így jött egymás
után a hétfő és a keddi nap is, közben az étkezési időkben családjaik
részéről meglátogatva. Egyébként a külvilággal csak a kis ablakon
keresztül volt érintkezésük, ahol a priccsre felállva ügyelt kifelé
egyikük, hogy mi történik az udvaron, és a látott dolgokat a rádió
helyszíni közvetítés stílusában továbbította a szoba részére a figyelő,
és ez újabb szórakozás volt, amivel az időt el lehetett tölteni. „A
polgármester a folyósón egy német tiszttel beszélget, de nincs semmi
baj, mert nem rólunk van szó, a tiszt ugyanis csapattiszt.” „Feri bácsi
fia érkezett meg aktatáskával, jön a folyósón mifelénk,” jelenti az
ügyelő, és Feri bácsi egy negyed órával később boldogan teszi el
igazolványait, mint akinek az ügye már rendben is van. - „Én mondom
fiúk, hogy ezek a németek elfeledkeztek rólunk,” szólal meg az egyik.
„Bár igaz volna, szűken vagyunk ugyan itt, de a háború végéig szívesen
itt maradnék.” „Nem is volna rossz,” hagyják jóvá a többiek is. És már
ringatták is magukat abban a reményben, hogy vagy kiengedik őket, vagy
városukban helyezik el más, internálásra alkalmas helyen. Közben a
zsidótanács tehetetlenül próbálkozik a hivatalos közegeknél, ahol
azonban nagyon hidegen fogadták őket. A németek már három napja eltűntek
és így jött a szerda reggel a már megszokott egyformasággal, a
reggelivel a családdal, amelyet mégis mindannyian oly nehezen vártak,
mert az étkezési idők már szinte szórakozássá váltak. Ekkor tudtak
érintkezni a szomszéd cellában lévő tizenegy társukkal is úgy, hogy az
étkezés mindig bizonyos vásári jelleget öltött, tolongással és kölcsönös
eszmecserével egybekötve. Az építész ilyenkor mindig derűs arccal jött
ki a kintlévők nagy csodálkozására és hozzátartozóiknak őt hozták fel
például, ha azok elelérzékenyedtek. - Mindig ilyenkor beszélte meg
családjával az új rendelkezések folytán szükségessé vált teendőket és
nagyobbrészt ezzel telt el társai ideje is. Szerda reggel is
rendelkezett, hogy a raktáron lévő anyagokról a leltárt hogyan készítse
el lánya. „Tudod a csempéket nem kell egyenkint megolvasni, meg tudod a
számlákból állapítani” és akkor egyszerre magához tér, „most már elég az
üzleti dolgokból, ott egye meg a fene az egészet; az a fontos, hogy hű
szövetségesünknek ezt az utolsó rúgkapálását valahogyan átvészeljük és
azután jön a boldogabb élet részünkre” szólt megsimogatva feleségét és
gyermekeit. „Hanem tudjátok mit, olyan kemény az a padló a földön, hogy a
derekam alaposan megfájdul reggelig, nem ártana valami alám.” „Majd
délben hozunk valamit,” szólt felesége, „miért nem szoltál előbb, de
hisz magamnak is eszembe juthatott volna!”  „No nem történt semmi baj,
hisz mindig úgy gondoltam, hogy elvisznek, akkor minek itt
berendezkedni.” „Vége a szórakozásnak,” szólal meg az ügyeletes rendőr,
és elbúcsúztak egymástól. Délben a jó ebéden kívül egy nagyszerű
derékaljat hoztak neki. „Itt van apukám, ezt hoztuk alád” szólalt meg
ügyes kis lánya, és ő babonás szorongással vette át a derékaljat, az
volt az érzése, hogy már nem fogja használni. Az ebéd a szokásos módon
zajlott le és utána megcsókolta feleségét, ki még megjegyezte, hogy
ennyit egész házasságuk alatt nem csókolták meg egymást búcsúzáskor,
mint most. - „Tudod, nem lehet tudni, hogy melyik az igazi búcsúcsók,
azért van ez,” szólalt meg tréfásan. Felkísérte őket a lépcsőn és a
lépcsőházból sokáig nézett utánuk, míg a két női szőke fej és fiának
kedves kis alakja el nem tűntek a folyosónál. A falnak fordult és
zsebkendőjével szemeit törölgette. „No gyerünk le mérnök úr,” szólalt
meg mögötte az ügyeletes rendőr. Bement a cellába, jó kedvet mutatott,
leterítette a derékaljat, és már akkor határozottan érezte, hogy nem fog
az éjszaka rajta feküdni. „Lefekszem rá most,” szólt oda félig tréfásan
bátyjának, „hátha nem kell már éjszaka, és legalább nem hiába fáradtak
vele ide.” Az otthon varázsa vett erőt rajta, hiszen úgy fekszik itt
most, mint otthon szokott délutánonkint, ahol hozzátartozói csevegése
közben újságot olvasva ringatja őt el az állandó egyforma zaj. Ott is
elég volt egy negyed óra, otthon is ennyit szokott feküdni. Különös,
gondolta, hogy az a faltól számított harmadik hely máris egy pár nap
alatt otthonává lett és most még az otthon levegőjét elhozta oda a
derékalj kényelme. - Felkelt, odament az ablakhoz „inspekciót” tartani.
„Két zsidó hölgy érkezett” jelentette, „bementek a rendőrfőnöki szobába,
most már ki is jöttek, a tanácsos udvariasan kíséri ki őket .” -
„Tűzoltóautó megy ki az  udvaron.”

„ Megérkezett a polgármester a kultúrtanácsnokkal, megálltak az
udvaron, kedélyesen  beszélgetnek, hivatalnokok mennek el mellettük, és
alázatosan köszöntgetik őket.” „Mindenki felment hivatali szobájába, az
udvar ismét csendes.” „Két német katona érkezett, nagyon gyanúsak - igen
sajnos ott van velük a civil is, aki felvette a nacionálénkat.” „Fiúk,
értünk jöttek, készüljetek fel,” és már leugrott az ablaktól, rendbe
hozta csomagjait. A többi még nem hitte, míg az udvarról nem hallották a
nagy teherautó búgását, mely sajnos német kocsi, jelentette ismét az
ablakból. Most már mindenki mozogni kezdett és már meg is jelent a
rendőr a cellaajtóban. „Urak készüljenek, mert elmennek.” Két perc múlva
már két méter magas német jelent meg rohamsisakkal a fején. Sürgette
őket. „Los, los, es geht zu viel langsam.” (Gyerünk, gyerünk, túl lassan
megy.)

 A következő rész eredetije a kurzívval gépelt szöveggel
bezárólag külön füzetlapon van, talán azért, mert később készült, mikor
apukám már levél útján esetleg értesülhetett utolsó csabai
látogatásunkról, de lehet, hogy a kurzívval gépelt rész teljesen
elképzelés szerinti.

Felkapta hátizsákját. Rátekintett üres helyére. Egy pillanatra
megállt. Ránézett a helyre a padlón, ahol 4 teljes napot töltött, és
ettől a kis másfél négyzetmétert sem kitevő helytől, mint otthontól vett
búcsút, végigsimogatva tekintetével a lábánál lévő repedt deszkától a
falnál lévő falkiszögelésig. Azután gyors elhatározással nekilendült, és
német csendőrök sorfala között rohant végig a folyósón fel az udvarra.
Ahol már a másik cella lakói a nagy teherautóra ugráltak fel sürgetve a
csendőröktől, holmijaik nagy részét kiejtve. - „Ne segítsetek neki,”
kiált oda a nyilas vezető, ki kárörvendő mosollyal a folyosó lépcsőzetén
szétvetett lábakkal, közvetlen közelben, az autó mellett állt, körötte
ismeretlenekkel, míg az emeleti folyosóra a városháza hivatalnokai
tódultak ki. – Megannyi kíváncsi szem, de a részvétnek a legcsekélyebb
megnyilvánulása nélkül, mintha az a 23 nem is ember volna, nem is éveken
keresztül ismerőseik és részben munkatársaik is. - Az építész csak a
végén szállt fel és szomorúan figyelte az eseményeket. Összepréselve
ültek fel a rendelkezésre álló padokra, még két helyet a csendőrök
részére szabadon hagyva, azok leeresztették a kocsi hátsó függönyét és
23 szempár aggodalmasan fürkészte egymás tekintetét és az arcokra az a
rémület ült, amit oly jól ismert már az építész az előző háborúból,
amikor parancsot kaptak az ellenség megtámadására. Halotti csendben úgy,
mint mikor az artisták készülnek a halálugrás megtételére, előtte
egymáshoz értelmetlen szavakat kiáltoznak, kiáltottak egymásnak az elől
és hátul lévő németek. - A motor berregni kezdett és a kocsi megindult,
vitte őket a városon keresztül. Kikukucskált a függöny résén és egymás
után vett búcsút gyerekkori emlékeitől, éveken keresztül épített
műveitől és utoljára a nagytemplom tornyától, melyet még egy darabig
látott és azután szomorúan nézte az autó kerék nyomait az esős, sáros
úton. Vajon hová mennek, ezt gondolta mindegyikük. -----

„Ma korábban megyünk be, hátha sikerül hamarabb bejutni és több
időt tölthetünk el apukával,” mondta felesége csaknem egyidejűleg
otthonában. Te készítsd a kávét elő, én pedig közben megcsinálom a
kalácsot.” „Tudja isten, de valahogy úgy érzem, hogy nem lesz semmi baj
és ki fog apuka újra szabadulni.” Örömmel fogott a munkához, olyan volt
ő, hogy már a munkában magában örömét lelte, most pedig  még sokra
becsült élettársa részére készíti a vacsorát. Ennek aztán jónak kell
lenni. Elkészülve a munkával, még maradt kis ideje és a kedvenc kötését
vette elő, majd 1/2 6 tájban odaszól a gyerekekhez: „No gyerekek,
készüljetek, most már megyünk.” Boldogan haladtak az utcán végig,
mindnyájukat eltöltötte a közeli szabadulás lehetősége. Elérkeztek a
városházához, és már egész otthonosan megindultak a lépcsőn lefelé,
amikor utánuk szól az ügyeletes: „Hová mennek nagyságáék, odalenn már
nincs senki, a madarak ma délután kirepültek.” Visszafordult, nem
értette meg és kérdőleg nézett lányára. „Azt mondja anyukám, hogy
apukáékat elvitték ma délután.” Egy ideig állt, nem akarta, nem is tudta
még felfogni az értelmét és csak egy pár pillanat múlva tudott szólani,
de akkor is csak egy szót: „Apuka,” és kiejtve kezéből az ételhordót, a
lépcsőkarfára dőlve zokogásban tört ki.

II.

Vitte őket az autó jól ismert vidéken, és amikor a Fekete körös
hídján mentek keresztül összeszorult szívvel nézett az építész a tájra,
mert egész ideáig szoktak elsétálni kis hétvégi házikójukból, itt van a
strandjuk. Ide jártak vasárnap délelőttönként barátaikkal együtt. Itt
beszélték meg évek alatt a politikai eseményeket, amelynek most szenvedő
alanya lett. E vidéktől is búcsút vett, és nem nézett ki többet, minek
nézett volna, mikor már minden csak ismeretlen pusztaság volt körülötte
részére. Széjjelnézett az autó belsejében, ott már társai cigarettára
gyújtottak a csendőrök engedélyével, és már a társalgás is megindult.
„Hiszen egész szimpatikus arcúak ezek a német fiúk” gondolta ő is
magában. Talán ezek nem is szívesen teljesítik ezt a munkát. Milyen
szimpátiával néz rája az egyik, valószínűleg ő is családot hagyott
otthon. Megszólítja. Udvariasan válaszol, hogy Stuttgartba való,
megmondja neki, hogy ő is járt már ott. A társak is beszélnek már velük,
és megkérdik, hogy hová mennek. „Egy város melletti birtokra, ott jó
dolguk lesz.” A csendőrök bizalomgerjesztők voltak és úgy hittek is
nekik. Megtudták, hogy a sofőr mellett ülő parancsnok „oberscharführer”,
tehát nem tiszt, mint ahogyan gondolták. Mi lehet a város, ahova
mennek? Tanakodtak. Ez Debrecen lehet, állapították meg, de miért mennek
akkor erre Nagyszalontán keresztül, kiált az egyik. Kinéz az építész,
és látja a csonka tornyot. „Arany János, Arany Laci, Petőfi-, szabadság”
jutnak eszébe egymás után. Igen, szabadság, de mikor? Előbb nem a
háború végénél; már pedig a háború még őszig eltart, ennek a nyárnak a
katonai eseményei véglegesen eldöntik a már kb. egy év óta amúgy is
eldőlt háború kimenetelét. Az oroszok hatalmas ékkel állnak elöl a déli
fronton, míg a Pripet mocsarak felett még mindig a Dnyeper mellett van a
front, úgy hogy itt kell elindulni, és ha sikerül a Dnyepertől
visszanyomni a frontot, akkor - már annyiszor számításba vette - még két
hónap szükséges a végleges leveréshez, természetesen számításba véve
azt is, hogy a szövetségesek is fognak partraszállásokat eszközölni.
Hányszor gondolta ezt át! és bízott (abban), hogy a háborúnak őszre vége
kell lenni. Most már csak az a kérdés, hogy a nagy világesemények és az
ő sorsuk között milyen lesz az összefüggés. Időben ki lesz a győztes.
Így mérlegelte most is a dolgokat, mikor ismét jelzik az utat figyelő
társaik, hogy Nagyváradra futottak be. Igen, úgy is van és már meg is
állottak a Szent László téren. Miért mennénk erre, ha Debrecenbe
tartunk, kérdik egymástól. A téren az esőben csak kevesen voltak, és
fogalmuk se volt talán, hogy milyen szállítmányt visz a letakart
teherautó. Ők pedig irigykedve nézték a kinnlevőket, akik szabadon
járhattak-kelhettek. Pár perc múlva már tovább utaztak és megnyugvással
vették tudomásul, hogy Várad felöl Debrecenbe vették útjukat. Mintha nem
egyforma sors várt volna rájuk, ha bármerre is mentek volna, de most
már beleélték magukat a debreceni tanyába, ha most az jelezte a jót
számukra, (és) ha az be is következik most különösen, amikor a németek
azt mondták, hogy ott jó dolguk van a már ott levőknek. - Ment az autó,
és mindenki azt szerette volna, hogy mielőbb a célnál legyen, hogy túl
lesznek egy ismeretlenen, a helynek ismeretlenségén, el nem képzelve
azt, hogy mennyi sok ismeretlen kerülhet a most elkezdett életükbe. De
csak mentek és most már csak a közel jövővel törődtek és csak azon
izgult mindegyikük, hogy a sötétség beállta előtt érkezzenek meg. Sajnos
ez nem következett be, mert útközben defektes autónak segítettek és
sötét volt már, amikor úgy 9 óra tájban Debrecen határába érkeztek. No
most innen hogy jutunk ki arra a tanyára, tanakodtak. - Közben az autó
befutott a vasútállomáshoz és onnan kanyargó utakra, míg egyszerre
megállt. Már kezdték sejteni, hogy ebből már nem lesz tanya. Az
oberscharführer leugrott és eltűnt a vaksötétségben. Egyikőjük sem
tudta, hogy hol vannak. Hosszúnak tűnő várakozás. - Végre kiáltás
hallatszik a sötétből, és az autó lassan előre megy, majd megáll. „Alles
heraus.” (Mindenki kifelé) Kiugrálnak egyenkint, megnyílik a nagykapu,
mely előtt álltak, és egyenruhás alakot pillantanak meg a kapu lámpától
megvilágítva. A kapu alatt felsorakoztatják őket és e közben megrémülve
olvassák a felírást a balra vezető ajtó felett: „Ügyészségi fogház” .-
Leszámolják 1, 2, 3, stb. 23. Stimmel. 23 darabot átadtam, szól a német a
magyar börtönőrhöz. - mint a barmokat, úgy adnak át darabszámra,
gondolják magukban. És az egy szót se szóló börtönőr intésére
megindultak. Sötét hosszú folyosókon keresztül topogva egyszerre
megállítják őket egy ajtó előtt, ahol az őrmester jön ki, és az már
megkérdezi, hogy honnan jönnek - Nagy haladás ez az előző szótlan
fogadtatás után és egyikük-másikuk erre már vérszemet is kapna további
viszontkérdezősködésre, ha arra az őrmester reagálna. „Menjen, hívja már
őket elő,” szól oda a fogházőrnek, ki erre eltűnt a sötét folyosón, és
nemsokára két 18 év körüli SS-kölökkel tér vissza. „No itt van, vigyék
őket,” szól oda magyarul az őrmester. Megolvasták, a hossza stimmel.
Mehetnek. A visszhangzó folyosón 23 pár bakancs bizonytalan lépte
hangzik fel és mennek végig a folyosón, majd fel a végtelen magasságban
tűnő 3.-ik emeletre. A koromsötétben, mint a vakok tapogatóznak. Jobbra
fordulnak, megint folyosón végig és megállnak. - Az ismert zár csattanás
hangzik és megszólal németül az SS-legény „Ide négy jöhet.” Az építész
elöl volt, így bátyjával és két társával ő juott először „hajlékhoz”.
Betapogatóznak, végre a kis málé szájúnak eszébe jut, és kézi lámpával
bevilágít.  Széjjel néznek, öt ágy van, de csak négyben van „ágynemű”.
Kettő az ablak melletti, 3 pedig az ajtó melletti falon. A cella nagy,
legalább 28 m2 területű, két ablaka van, jó magasan,
természetesen vasráccsal, mindkét ablak nyitva áll. Az egyik alatt
spanyolfallal elkerített helyen „a kübli”. „Nézze meg, hogy nincs-e
tele, csak nem fogom én.” szól az építészhez. Az undorral nyúl hozzá a
fedőhöz. Csak félig volt. „Jó még nem kell kivinni.” „Nézzük, hogy
állunk a poloskákkal.” Végignézi a falakat, és morog valamit, majd
pedig: „Én velem ki lehet jönni, jó ember vagyok, csak rendesen
viselkedjenek.” Mind ezt a szónoklatot olyan német nyelven mondta,
aminek Goethe nyelvéhez kevés köze se volt. Kiment, becsapta az ajtót és
rájuk zárta. - Elővették zseblámpáikat, és leterítették takaróikat,
lefeküdtek. „No jó helyre kerültünk.” De remélhetjük, hogy holnap
mégiscsak kimegyünk arra (a) tanyára, most csak azért jöttünk ide, mert
az autóval földutakon éjjel nem mehetünk. „Azt mondta, hogy 5 órakor
kell felkelni, és így biztosan hamar jön az autó értünk, egy éjszakát
csak kibírunk itt. Utóvégre nem is olyan rossz hely ez itt.” „Hát nem
is,” hagyta jóvá a többi is. Lassan-lassan elaludt mindegyik, csak az
építész nem tudott még aludni. Nagyon foglalkoztatták őt a történtek.
Milyen különös dolog, hogy a bátyján kívül két teljesen idegen emberrel
került ide, olyanokkal, akikkel csak köszönőviszonyban volt. A
mészárossal, Rasival, aki foglalkozását megtagadva a legjobban volt
elérzékenyedve közöttük, és a már régóta üzlet nélkül lévő kereskedővel,
a nagy kártyás Dolival, akit már egy pár napi együttlétük után a
külsejére sokat adó pedáns embernek ismert meg. - Most úgy látja, hogy
nincs különbség négyük között, mindegyikük fogoly és barát. Azután
feleségére, családjára gondolt, vajon most hogyan viselik az
eseményeket. Bizony két év előtt, mikor munkaszolgálaton volt, nagyon
megviselte szegény feleségét az aggódás. Nem is csodálkozott rajta, mert
hiszen akkor ő is sokkal nehezebben viselte a távollétet, már pedig
annak, aki elmegy sokkal könnyebb dolga van, mint az otthon maradóknak.
Az otthoniak mindig súlyosabb körülményeket képzelnek, mint amibe
jutottak. Most is például milyen nyugodtan fekszik és gondolkozik, nézi a
két ablakot, amelyeken bevilágít az éjszaka. Milyen szép ez a kékes
fény, ami beözönli a cellát, és a tárgyakat csak sejtetni engedi,
körülvéve a gyönyörű kékes fluidummal, melyben lebegnek. Az ablakok,
mint éjszaka világító nagy szemek lövellik be a fényt, és ahogy így
nézi, a kékes világosság fehér fénnyé változik, el-eltűnik, mintha ajtó
nyílna és csukódna és akkor egyszerre az egyik ajtónyitásnál feleségét
látja, ágyban fekszik, könyv van a kezében, de látszik, hogy nem tud
olvasni, csak gondterhesen mered maga elé. Bemegy hozzá, és megszólal:
„Miért nem alszol, hiszen nekem semmi bántódásom sincsen, csak te
képzeled ezt úgy, mert minden percedet a hiányérzet foglalja le. Az
ágyamban nem alszik senki, az asztalnál üres a helyem, szekrényemet nem
nyitja senki, minden megmarad abban az állapotban, ahogyan én itt
hagytam  Ezek a körülmények állandóan eszedbe juttatják, hogy itt valaki
hiányzik. Aki elmegy otthonról, az új környezetbe kerül, ahol övéi még
nem voltak, és emlékeket kell felidéznie, hogy közelében érezze őket. -
és akkor érzi aztán csak igazán, hogy egyedül van. Jó kedvel akarom a
rám váró megpróbáltatást végig élni, erősnek kell maradnom, ... ezt
mondtad te is nekem, és ezért nem fogok érzékenykedni, csak naponta
egyszer leszek együtt veletek, de akkor intenzíven és csakis veletek....
Érzem, hogy ez az utolsó megpróbáltatás, és kérlek, hogy Te is légy
erős, és viseld magadhoz méltóan. Mi csak a háború elmúltával tudunk
találkozni, de a vég már közeleg, és hamar meg fogod tudni, mert egy égi
harang jelzi azt mindenki részére...” Gilin, gilin, gilin, szólal meg a
fogház harangja, jelezve az ötórai ébresztést. „Mi az?” riadnak fel
mind a négyen egyszerre a cellában. Feltápászkodnak. „Ej de ki kell
menni!” szólal meg Rasi. „Hát próbálj kopogni,” szólal meg Doli.
Megkopogtatják az ajtót és pár perc múlva nyílik a kis ablakocska: „Woas
is’ los!” (Mi a baj) Szól be a nemes nyelven. Előadják kívánságukat,
hogy ki akarnak menni. - „Hát ott a kübli” és becsapja az ablakocskát.
„Nincs más hátra, ne szégyelld magad Rasi, és intézd el.” Rasi nagy
szégyenkezve elintézi (a) dolgát és utána szótlanul és lehetőleg
észrevétlenül mindegyikük elvégzi. „Most már ezzel megvolnánk, de mi
lesz a mosdással.” „Ettől a bitangtól hiába kérünk valamit.” „De
gyerekek, nekünk van a kulacsunkban víz, majd azzal valahogy
elintézzük,” és egymás kezébe öntve a kübli felett „alapos” mosdást
végeztek. „Hát ez meg mi a fene kopogás-pacskolás?” kérdi Doli. „Nézd
már meg Rasi!” Rasi felmászik az ágya támlájára, és onnan lenéz. „Lenn
körbejárnak a rabok, reggeli sétájukat végzik.” Mindegyikük egymás után
nézi meg a moziban már sokszor látott képet, de ez most a szívükbe
markolt. A sarokban ott áll a fegyőr, puska a vállán, és előtte körbe
sétálnak hátratett kézzel a fegyencek. Urak, parasztok, proletárok, és
zsidó is - mind csak fegyenc, egyforma meggörnyedt háttal földre nézve
sétál, és a fapapucs a lábukon kopog-kopog. Elbámulva nézik. Hát ez is
élet még? „Bizony, inkább nem mennék levegőre, mint így megalázva.”
Állapítják meg egymás között. Lassan elhal a kopogás, és újra csend
lesz. Egymásra néznek, vajon most mi következik? Nyílik a kis ablak, és
négy csajkát és négy kenyeret nyújtanak be rajta. - Rasi veszi át, és
meg is kóstolja. „Ez a keménymagos leves egész jó, de a kenyér annál
rosszabb, csupa keletlen tésztából, hogy a pék jól jöjjön ki vele. Még
jó, hogy van az otthoniból pótolnivaló.” Megint nyílik a kis ablak, most
az üres csajkákat kéri egy kollega, aki egyben cigarettát is koldul, és
elmondja kérdésükre, hogy felesége meggyilkolásáért van benn, pedig
egészen fiatal gyereknek néz ki. „Ezek már beleszoktak a fogházéletbe,”
állapítják meg. „Jó, hogy nekünk csak egy napig kell itt lenni, mert még
délelőtt értünk jönnek.” Már 10 óra van, és mindannyian nagykabátban
állnak, topognak és beszélgetnek. A cellában hideg van, mert az
ablakokat a kübli miatt nyitva kell tartani, a szél majd kiviszi őket,
ilyen szellős szobát még nem láttak! A nap csak hajnalban mutatja magát
egy órára, a fogházat bölcsen északkeleti irány felé tájolták, minek a
raboknak a nap! „Tudjátok fiúk, - szól az építész - én minden bírót,
mielőtt kineveznék, egy hónapra bezárnék, hogy lássák azt, mire ítéli az
embereket. Biztosan igazságosabb ítéletek látnának napvilágot! Én pld.
már így nem terveznék meg fogházat se, mint ahogy ez van építve.”
„Vajon  mit csinálnak a többiek, kopogtass csak nekik.” Megkopogtatják a
közfalat, válasz jön, de sajnos csak össze-vissza végeznek, nem tudják
még a kopogtató nyelvet. „Fiúk, már dél van, itt vannak az ebéddel”-
szól Doli. Bizony már dél van, állapítják meg, és mégse vitték el őket.
Kényszeredetten eszik a szokatlan ebédet, majd lefekszenek, ismét
felkelnek. „Fiúk, én délután el szoktam ott-honról menni, be a városba.
Hát most is elindulok ” szól az egyik, és nekiindul fel és le járkálva a
cellában, mindig jelezve, hogy hol van most. „Most kifordulok a Teleki
utcából a  Széchényi utcába, és onnan a Szt. István térre.” „Szervusz”
szól egyszerre rá Doli, aki szintén fel-alá járkál, „te hová mész, mit
keresel a városban?” Így játszanak, hogy az idő teljen, már kezdenek
bizalmatlanok lenni elvitelükben. - Így lassan esteledett, amikor
meglepetésszerűen az ajtó kinyílt és a málészájú SS-legény felszólítja a
cella lakóit, hogy vigyék ki a küblit. Kimennek a folyosóra, ugyanakkor
jöttek ki a többi társak is a cellákból, és összetalálkoztak a W.C-nél,
ahova a kübli tartalmát ürítették. Sajnálták, hogy nincsenek velük ők
is. Azt mondják, hogy nagyon hiányzanak nekik. „Bizony nekik is jobb
volna, ha többen lennének. Sajnos a társalgásnak nagyon hamar vége lett,
mert újból be kellett nekik menni. Közben egész beesteledett és új-ból
lefeküdtek, és másnap a szokásos 5 órai csengetésre ébredtek fel. „Hogy
mi a fenének kell ötkor felkelni, amikor alig tudjuk a napot agyonütni,
én nem is kelek fel” szól az egyik. „Úgy látszik, ezek már megint itt
hagynak bennünket, ez az ő rendszerük; a bizonytalanságban hagyás és
ezzel a megfélemlítés.” „Kérni kellene ettől a bitangtól valami mosdó
félét.” „Most van itt a kancsóban víz, hoztam be,” szól Rasi. „Na te
ügyes ember vagy..” Az udvaron most indul meg a séta, mindegyikük előtt
megelevenedik a tegnapi kép, és elkomorodnak. - Egy darabig szótlanok,
azután vége a sétának. Jön a reggeli és utána is-mét meglepetés, az
ajtót most a kancsi SS kinyitja. „Küblit kiüríteni, és a szobát
kitakarítani!” Szól, és örömmel rohannak a küblivel a W.C.-hez. Egyikük
seperni kezd. Ismét összejönnek most a folyosón is, mert a kancsi
valamivel rendesebb. Ma már valamivel letörtebbek voltak a szomszédok.
Visszamentek a cellába és folytatták a benti életet. Egyszerre ismét
nyílik (az) ajtó, a folyosón sorakoztatják őket, és a szomszédokkal
együtt leviszik a földszintre a fogház irodához. Itt nacionáléikat
felveszik, és csodálkoznak, hogy milyen szimpátiával beszélnek velük, a
végén kisült, hogy azok is fogházlakók. Ismét bejutva szobájukba a
történtekből azt következtetik, hogy itteni helyzetük végleges. Miért
kellett volna egyébként őket állományba venni. Igy telik most már
napjuk, és már kibékülnek a fogházzal is, mint elfogadható lakhellyel a
háború végéig. Vajon tényleg ilyen-e az emberi természet, hogy vigaszt
nyer mindjárt, ha életében oly változás áll be, minek megváltozásába
beleszólni nincs módja? Ők ugyanis így voltak. „No már ha így van, hogy
maradunk, nézz már körül az ablaknál Rasi, hogy mi van odakinn.”
Felmászik Rasi az ágy végére, és beszélni kezd a csabai rendőrségi
fogdában megállapított rádió közvetítés modorában. „Váradnak azt a
részét látjuk, ami az állomáshoz közel van.” „Miféle Váradról beszélsz?
Talán elment az eszed?” „Izé, ahogyan mondom Szolnok,” javítja ki magát
Rasi. „Hát tényleg, máris a fejedet érte a baj, mert az volt a
leggyengébb pontod, egész meghülyültél, mi lesz veled később. No hát
mondd csak már tovább, és vedd tudomásul már, hogy Debrecenben, érted
Deb-re-cen-ben vagyunk,” kiabálnak neki. „Hát látok egy pár nagy
épületet, szép nagy hely ez a Várad, izé Szolnok.” „No tessék már
megint,” és így telik az idő. Beszélnek inkább sok mindent,
hülyeségeket, mókáznak, csak nem hallgatnak, mert a hallgatás az
szörnyű, azt nehéz elviselni. - „Mégis jobb volna, ha többen volnánk,
többnek több szája és többet is beszélnének,” - gondolják ilyenkor -
„mert itt nem a gondolat a fontos, hanem a szó, ami elhangzik, hogy csak
csend ne legyen.” Így múlnak a napok, és mindennapos lett az ilyen
szórakozás, csak abban különböztek, hogy mindig más volt a látnivaló az
ablakon. Egy ilyen ablak nagyon szórakoztató, még akkor is, ha csak két
udvar látható, az egyik egy cívisé, a másik egy zsidóé. A zsidóéban
természetesen németek vannak az első lakásban, a zsidók pedig hátra
szorultak, ebben a házban csak ritkán látni mást, mint német katonát, a
zsidók már nem élik a maguk életét. A cívisházban a kisasszony a padon
elterülve napozik, egy koca a malacait szoptatja, a gazda elkészül
otthonról, befogják a kocát. És ez most mind nagyon érdekes. Érdekes már
azért is, mert felülről nézik a két ház közötti különbséget. Az
egyikben az ellenőrzött elnyomottnak az életét, a másikban a szabad
emberét. De ha nem is ezzel a szemmel néznék, akkor is érdekelné őket,
mert a két udvar jelentette részükre most az egész külső világot. Milyen
különös az, hogy ők ide be vannak zárva, azt se tudják miért, míg azok
szabadon járnak és végzik mindennapi munkájukat. Ebbe már lassan bele is
nyugodtak, sőt már a harmadik napon ők is szívesen sétáltak volna a
fegyencekkel együtt. „Bizony nem is volna rossz egy kicsit a levegőre
menni, lám még ezt se teszik meg nekünk,” sóhajt fel egyikük, akit az
első napi séta látványa a legjobban megtört. Az életükben a boldog
perceket a kübli kivitele jelentette, akkor mozoghattak egy keveset a
folyosón, beszélhettek a szomszédokkal. Egy reggel meglepetve látták,
hogy az épületnek ellenkező szárnya felől új zsidók jelentek meg, hamar
felvették velük a kapcsolatot. „Nini, hisz az ott a Pista Gyuláról, ez
meg ott Áron Szalontáról, tehát ők is itt vannak!” A W.C. az épületnek
úgynevezett csillag szárnyában volt, a csillagban voltak az egyes cellák
és a három emelet a földszinttől kezdve látszott a folyosókkal
udvarszerűen kiképezve úgy, hogy egy őr ellenőrizhette az egészet. Ettől
a résztől kezdve az első cella a 81-es volt a felügyelőké. „Los, los,”
hangzik fel az SS-ek részéről és bemennek a cellába, de „Hallgass csak,”
szólal meg egyikük, „a többiek már kinn vannak.” „Te ezek a folyosót
súrolják.” „Milyen szerencséjük van, most tovább kinn lehetnek, pláne
biztosan húzzák is a munkát.” Tovább hallgatták kinn dolgozó társaik
beszédét és .... 

Eddig jutott haza a napló.

A debreceni internálásban engedélyezték a levelezést német
nyelven, és csomagot is küldhet-tünk. Apám május 3.-ától junius 3.-áig
20 levelet írt. Tartalmuk alapján megtudható, hogy a deb-receni
fogházból olyan helyre vitték Őket, ahol kerti munkát végeztek. Továbbá a
tőlünk kapott levelekből apukám megtudta az „előgettóba” való
összeköltöztetésünket, és több levelet már oda küldött. Természetesen
azt nem írhattuk meg, hogy a deportálás elől külső segítséggel
megszökünk. Talán már júniusban, a vidéki deportáláskor Bécsbe vitték
őket.

Tevan  Andor, az 55 éves kezdő napszámosnak

1944 augusztus 15.

Édes Andorkám, ilyen körülmények között még nem ülted meg ezt a
napodat, és biztosra veszem azt, hogy hiányzik ma Neked a meghitt otthon
jobban, mint akármikor. Most úgy adódott, hogy én se vagyok Nálad az
egyedüli, aki közeledben lehetnék a véredből valók közül. Amint látod,
lélekben mégis Nálad vagyok, és a legjobbakat kívánom. Biztosra veszem,
hogy a legközelebbi születésnapodat örömben és megelégedésben fogod
tartani családoddal, sőt a házassági évfordulód is a családodban fog
találni. - Szívemből kívánom ezt Neked és őszintén. Magamról azt
írhatom, hogy jobban vagyok és javulok. A professzor azt mondta, hogy a
hetek kellenek a gumók visszafejlődéséhez, és én mit csináljak, hiszek
neki , míg az ellenkezőjéről meg nem győződöm. - Már nagyobbrészt fenn
járok. Sőt az Altersheimban (öregek otthonában) is voltam látogatóban,
ahová azt hiszem nemsokára áttesznek. Hidd el nekem, hogy nagyon sok már
nekem az itt létem. Még ha dolgozni és kínlódni is kell, már vágyom
azután a „szabadság” után, ahol legalább van valami érintkezés a
külvilággal. És azután az ember se sokkal különb az állatoknál, ő is a
nyájában érzi jobban magát, mint egy idegen nyájban. Ma itt volt Pollák
dr. és Lusztig Pis-ta levelét hozta, ki nála érdeklődött, hogy nem
tudnak-e valamit a családjáról. Én megadtam neki a mi címünket, sajnos ő
nem közölte a magáét. Úgy látszik mindnyájunkat elővesz  nyugtalanság
azért, hogy nem tudunk családunkról. Egészen biztos, hogy nem kerültek
erre a vidékre. Ha már összejönni nem tudunk velük, legalább a címüket
kellene megtudni, hogy alkalomadtán idejében felvehessük velük a
kapcsolatot. - Bár látszólag a dolgok menetében lassúbbodás látszik, ez
csak látszólagos, mert a következendő események már meg fogják törni
véglegesen, és az általunk ismert időpontra indulhatunk hazafelé. -
Rózsinak add át kézcsókomat Téged csókollak ölellek  Rezső.

A következő levelet Donizer (?)
Árpád írta a Wien-Lobau-i lágerből 1944 szeptember 7.-én a Budapesten
illegálisan tartozkodó Tevan Zsófiának Domokos Józsefné (legális)
címére.

Nagyságos
asszonyom!                                                                                                                   

Lányomhoz intézett VIII. 27. kelt b.
soraira én válaszolok, sőt értesítem, hogy k. apja Tevan R. és
nagy-bátyja T. Andor velem jöttek Wienbe, innen bennünket ide osztottak,
őket (Sipos Imrét - A Bárányt Orosházáról) Wienben hagyták a városi
légvédelemnél. Úgy tudom egy iskolában laknak, címük: Wien XII. Bez.
Stadtlau Schich-gasse Volksschule. - Egyidejűleg én is írok nekik, de
nem tudom, vajon nekik meg van-e engedve a levelezés, mert nem írhatunk.
- Annyit közölhetek, hogy Wienig jól voltak, erősek és kitartók.
Közölni fogom velük, hogy k. családja együtt van. - Mi is üdvözöljük
ismerőseinket, s csak legyenek önök is nyugodtak, rendes ellátásuk van.
Kézcsókkal és szívélyes üdvözlettel        Árp.. (?)       

1946. III. 27.  Hajdúböszörmény.

Kedves Zsófia kisasszony!

Folyó 6. kelt soraira csak ma tudok válaszolni, mert nem voltam
idehaza. Legelső sorban fogadja szívem mélyéből legőszintébb részvétemet
s kérem az árvák gyámolyát, hogy nyújtson önnek mielébb vigasztalást,
mert sajnos ez az élet természetes folyamata. Kedves édesapjával együtt
dolgoztunk hónapokon át az üvegezési kommandóban, sőt betegsége alatt én
ápoltam, de sajnos nem tudtuk megmenteni, a tény az, (hogy) 1945.
Március havában fleck tífuszban távozott el tőlünk örökre, és
Bergen-Belsenben. Tény, hogy naplót vezetett, de én azt soha nem
olvastam, hanem egy Steinberger nevű lakatos mester, vagy esztergályos
nagyon derék ember kezében láttam boldogult halála után a naplót, hogy ő
azt magéval vitte volna alig hiszem, de azért ha megtudom a pontos
címet írok neki, hogy küldje el önnek a naplót. Kívánságának remélem
eleget tettem, és bármikor készséggel állok rendelkezésére és maradok
teljes tisztelettel:  Holcz...... 

Evvel nem lehet tudni a mai zavaros helyzetben, hogy nem-e veszi hasznát. A mellékelt nyilatkozatot azért adtam meg.        

A következő feljegyzés (levélrészlet ?) talán 1946-ban készült az
én (Tevan György) írásommal. Az is benne van, hogy Rosenberg Zoltán
festősegéd Orosházán Polgár Emil épületanyag keres-kedésében
található.  

Él Orosházán egy Rosenberg Zoltán nevű, cca. 20 éves festősegéd, akit
egy másik lágerből, de szintén Bécsből vitték el ugyanavval a
transzporttal, mint szegény Rezsőt. Most Gyurival együtt elkezdtük
faggatni. - Ngyon jól ismerte, szerette, mint rendes, nagyon rendes
embert. Ott volt, mikor meghalt. Csak két hétig volt beteg, fejtífusza
volt. (Tehát nem fleck.) Orvos járt hozzá, de gyógyszerük alig volt. Ez
február elején, vagy március elején történt. Pontosan nem tud rá
visszaemlékezni. Ott is működött krematórium, ahol a halottakat
elégették, tehát szegény Rezső is ilyen temetést kapott. Rosenberg
szerint még egy tanú van erre: egy Sajó nevű mérnök Debrecenből. - A
másik nevét nem tudja. Mint kolléga, nagyon jóban volt Rezsővel. Ők
mindnyájan a Sonderlagerben voltak és valamivel jobb dolguk volt, mint a
más lágerbeliek-nek. Eleinte nagyon sokat dolgoztak, de jobb kosztot is
kaptak. Januártól kezdve nem dolgoztak semmit.


 

Janina Wiener

Janina Wiener
Cracow
Poland
Interviewer: Jolanta Jaworska
Date of interview: July-August 2005

Mrs. Janina Wiener is 83 years old and was born in Lwow. She talks about herself and her family – a family with the sense of a Jewish identity, yet culturally to a large extent integrated into Polish society. The history of her family shows how rich and diverse the Jewish world was. It refutes the stereotype that the Polish Jew was poor and simple, wore payot, or was a communist, or that he was so assimilated that only anti-Semites saw a Jew in him. Here we have a culturally very rich Polish and European family of Jews, where children are given Polish names and at the same time attend Hebrew lessons at the Tarbut 1.

My name is Janina Wiener [nee Bodenstein] and I was born on 13th April 1922 in Lwow. I remember my great-grandmother, because she died when I was already ten years old; that was in 1932. I remember her very well. She was my maternal great-grandmother, the mother of my maternal grandmother. Her name was Klara Urich, but I don’t know her maiden name. Great-grandmother was a very dignified, grey-haired lady. Always dressed in black, with a large black polished bag. When she visited us, she’d sit me on her lap and kiss me, which was very unpleasant, because she probably already had, you know… facial hair. She’d prickle me. She’d prickle me with those kisses, and she’d treat me with paradise apples, the small, red ones, which she’d take out of her polished bag. And I felt miserable, literally miserable. Whenever she came I’d run away however I could. I’d hide away in some tight corner so that they wouldn’t find me and take me to Great-grandmother.

Great-grandmother was a widow. About her husband – my great-grandfather – I know virtually nothing. Great-grandmother’s latter years were affluent and prosperous; she had this companion with whom she lived and who’d escort her to us, even though Great-grandmother was physically and mentally sound, really OK. I remember that we spoke only in Polish. I don’t remember which street she lived on; I don’t think I ever visited her at home. Usually it was her who’d come to us. I have no idea whether she was religious. She is buried in the Jewish cemetery in Lwow.

My maternal grandmother’s name was Charlota [Singer, nee Urich]. I don’t know how they spelled it, but everyone called her Loti. Oh, she was a great person. She was short, she was plump, always with a smile on her face. A warm person, of whom it was said in the family she had the ‘white liver,’ [a composed, cool person] because grandfather – Jakub Singer – was a pyknic [Editor’s note: Mrs. Wiener means he was explosive], an impulsive personality. Grandfather was very impulsive. And when he’d get one of his fits, Grandmother would sit at the table and start eating. As long as he was raging, she kept eating. And they were a couple, Jakub and Charlota. Both were born in Lwow. Moreover, I very much liked to visit Grandmother when she was doing something, and sometimes – though they had a cook – she’d cook something herself. I remember how she used to make those favorite cakes of mine, her sleeves rolled up. Those hands were so plump, with little dimples, and I loved to kiss Grandmother on those dimples. And she would never chase me away from the kitchen. Never.

Though Grandfather was very impulsive, I never irritated him. He’d never yell at me. I remember him as a very large man, powerfully built, with very large hands, yet those hands were so delicate that if something got into my eye or I got a splinter in my finger, I’d run to Grandfather to pull it out, rather than to my mother. Grandfather was grey-haired; his hair was somehow wavy and parted in the middle. He never wore glasses. Grandfather was a very wealthy man. So much so he could afford to spend the whole of World War I in Vienna with six children, his wife, a nanny – which, you’ve got to admit, was something. They returned to Lwow only after the war, not after the regaining of independence [see Poland’s independence, 1918] 2 but a bit later, I think, after that Polish-Ukrainian war [see Battle for Lwow] 3.

After the war [World War I], Grandfather worked as a sales representative for various foreign companies in Poland. Among other things, he was a distributor for Oetker [Dr. Oetker, German maker of baking additives and desserts; the company’s first production plant in Poland opened in 1922 in Gdansk]. A nationwide distributor. Among other things. Then I remember there was a company I was very much interested in: Victor Schmidt und Soehne from Vienna. It was a confectionery company, they made chocolate. Every Christmas I’d get from them a whole box of chocolate figurines for hanging on the Christmas tree. Besides that, I remember I once got from them a tiny Rosenthal dolls’ tea set. I also got dolls from them – so that the company and its name somehow stuck in my memory. I also remember a company called Globin Globus, they made metal-cleaning agents or something of the sort.

Those were Austrian companies and certainly also German ones, because I remember that Grandfather often went on business to Leipzig, Vienna, and Gdansk. He always brought me, his granddaughter, gifts back from those trips.

Grandfather had an office in the house where he lived. The address was 35 Skarbkowska Street [now Lesi Ukrainki], and we lived next door at 37. That was the center of Lwow. Grandfather owned both houses, and that’s why I was so close to them. Both houses had two stories. Like us, Grandfather lived on the second floor. His apartment was very spacious, and from the living room you entered a balcony overlooking the street. The balcony had beautiful metalwork, hammered by some village blacksmith. Grandfather had bought those houses, but I don’t know when. I can’t say whether Grandfather owned any other real estate except those two townhouses.

In the kitchen they had this huge tiled stove with a top plate for cooking. A door led from the kitchen to the dining room, and when you entered, on the right there was a niche, a cabinet set into the wall, with a metal door – all that was wallpapered. There were shelves there, and on the lower shelf stood tins full of cookies. All kinds of cookies: salty ones of the cracker variety with poppy-seed, sweet ones…

It was a Jewish home, of course. It was a home where all the holidays were observed. On the eve of the major holidays, the important ones, we usually had a festive dinner – because a holiday always starts at dusk of the previous day. During Easter [the practice of using the name Easter instead of Pesach to describe the Jewish holiday is widespread with secular, deeply assimilated Polish Jews] you can’t, of course, eat bread, so we ate matzah, and when the holidays ended, we’d eat that matzah with ham. Grandmother’s cuisine wasn’t kosher – nothing of the sort. Neither ours nor my grandparents’ was.

The whole family would gather at Grandfather’s during those major holidays. Grandfather had six children, and all of them were married, both the sons and the daughters, except the youngest son, who still lived with my grandparents, while they all lived in their own places in various parts of the city. They weren’t practicing… Absolutely none of them, unfortunately. Unfortunately, I say… There was no mention of it whatsoever. They never went to the synagogue, but for those holiday dinners they’d all come as one man. Oh yes, they sat respectfully at the table. And those were the holidays, the most important Jewish holidays. Then Grandmother’s birthday, Grandfather’s birthday, their wedding anniversary – those were the days when the whole family would meet at their home.

The Friday [Sabbath] dinners were also held at Grandfather’s. Everyone who could and wanted to could attend. Oh yes. Everyone could come, and I went there too, because I was very fond of Jewish-style fish [gefilte fish]. Grandmother would light the candles. Grandfather would arrive, for he had been to prayer at the Tempel [synagogue built in 1843-1846 on Lwow’s Old Market Place, blown up by the Germans during World War II], and the candles would have already been lit. Then Grandfather would stand up – there was this silver ritual cup, filled with wine – and give the blessing. And that was it; we’d sit down and start eating. A proper dinner.

So it was like that – on the one hand, the major holidays were observed, Grandfather and Grandmother prayed at the city’s most progressive synagogue, the Tempel. They had their benches there, and I remember the metal plaques with their names engraved. I’d also often go to Grandmother’s for those major holidays, because Grandmother was then able to show off her granddaughter to all the ladies. I had to curtsy, of course, and behave. That I remember. Yet in everyday life, it was a very typical home – typical in terms of Polish customs and habits, though, for instance, my grandparents never had a Christmas tree, but we always had one. That didn’t bother Grandfather. Not the slightest bit. Neither Grandfather nor any of his brothers or sisters had anything to do with orthodoxy. They all were very much assimilated. The language in use at my grandparents’ was Polish, though very often they spoke German. Yes… Grandfather and Grandmother might very well talk German at dinner. For Grandfather, it didn’t matter which language he spoke. At the Tempel, my grandparents prayed with prayer books, so they obviously knew some Hebrew. I suppose so, but I’m not sure. I never heard them speak Yiddish or Hebrew. Unfortunately not.

My grandfather was a great fan, to use a modern word, of Emperor Franz Joseph 4. Under Franz Joseph, everything was good. I remember that when I was due to go to school for the first time, Grandfather went with me to a store to buy notebooks, crayons, pencils, and so on. That was 1928, ten years after [the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918]. And at some point, I don’t remember whether it was about pencils or crayons, Grandfather asked the shop assistant, ‘But don’t you have pre-war ones? From before that war?’ I found the expression ‘Don’t you have pre-war ones?’ so appealing that when one time they sent me for fresh rolls to the grocer’s, which happened rarely, but that one time they did send me, I asked in the shop whether they didn’t have pre-war ones. And when I was already a grown-up girl and passed that shop, the owner would always ask me, ‘Do you remember, Miss, how you wanted to buy pre-war rolls?’ Another detail that has now surfaced from memory. Pre-war ones. So, for my grandfather, everything that came from the Franz Joseph era was simply better than anything else.

Grandfather Jakub had three brothers, Wolf, Adolf, and Ludwik, and two sisters whose names I don’t remember. One lived in Vienna, the other in Lwow. The one that lived in Lwow was married to, I think, an optician. I don’t know about the other one, but I know that she visited Lwow several times and stayed with my grandparents. And I know that her daughter, called Mitzi, also paid a visit to Lwow one time. All of Grandfather’s brothers lived in Lwow. Ludwik Singer, a doctor, died during World War I of typhus, having contracted it from a patient. My grandfather’s second brother, Wolf, operated a fur trading business. The third one, Adolf, was a poet, who had kept a shop, but the business went bankrupt because he didn’t look after it at all.

Adolf was a poet in the metaphorical sense of the word, i.e. had his head in the clouds and cared only for literature. Later my grandfather and his brother Wolf gave Adolf some money to set up a tailor’s shop. And I remember a family row – Grandfather was such a hothead – with him striding around the room and saying, ‘Perhaps I love Heine and Goethe too, perhaps I’d also like to be reading them instead of watching over the business!’ Then that second venture also went bust – and he had six children, that Adolf. Five daughters and a boy. I remember Marysia [Maria], Irena, Dziunia. What Dziunia was short for, I don’t know. One was probably named Antonina, for they called her Toncia. I don’t remember the name of the fifth daughter. The son was the youngest of them, and his name was Henryk.

I was close to Toncia’s daughter, Niuka – she was really called Anna – because we were roughly the same age, were growing up together, our mothers, besides being cousins, were friends, we went on summer vacation together, and so on. All those daughters and the son had higher education. I don’t know how he’d managed – I guess the family had helped him, and, on the other hand, there was this hunger [among Adolf’s children] for knowledge, for studying and making a prestigious career. They could have taken apprenticeships with a tailor or a shoemaker, but in that place everyone wanted a prestigious profession.

As far as my grandmother Charlota’s siblings are concerned, I remember two of her brothers. One was called Joachim, the other Franciszek. Everyone called Joachim ‘Bolo,’ but I don’t know why. Franciszek went by the name Franz, the Galician way [the majority of the population of Galicia spoke German, hence the Germanization of the Polish name]. Both were dental surgeons. They had an excellent practice on Kopernika Street. Franciszek was a confirmed bachelor. He married very, very late. An assistant of his. They had no children. I remember that Joachim had a wife and a son, Henryk, much older than me.

I know little about my paternal grandparents. They came from Vienna. My father’s father was a musician, a music teacher at the Vienna Conservatory. His name was Ignacy Bodenstein. I really know nothing about him. He simply died very early. My father was born in 1892 and grandfather died when my father was 16, i.e. 1908. I don’t know when or why my father’s family moved from Vienna to Lwow, but then it was all Galicia 5 … It was one state. I remember well that there was a cousin in Vienna, who married an Austrian girl, she wasn’t Jewish. They had two children, I think. I don’t remember that cousin’s name, but it was probably the only mixed marriage in our family.

My father’s mother was called Dora Bodenstein, nee Poss, and, if I remember right, she lived at 83 Zolkiewska Street [now Khmelnytskoho] in Lwow. I didn’t like to go there, because the apartment somehow seemed very large and gloomy. Grandmother never had a job in her life, and was provided for by her two sons, my uncle Ludwik and my father. As I see it today, she should have been drawing some pension after her husband, shouldn’t she? But she wasn’t. I somehow wasn’t drawn to her, because she was very… how to say it… she was always admonishing me, ‘Sit like this,’ ‘Don’t sit like that,’ ‘Hold yourself straight,’ and so on. She was scolding a small child, so I wasn’t close with her. Uncle Ludwik had no children, so all her affection was focused on me. Grandmother was assimilated and didn’t even go to pray to the synagogue. Nothing. Neither did my uncle or my father.

My grandparents had two sons: the older one Ludwik and the younger one, my father. Ludwik later became a lawyer in Lwow and lived on Sykstuska Street [now Doroshenka]. He completed his law studies in Lwow. As there were only the two of them, they were very close to each other. With the reservation that Uncle would visit us more often than we would visit him, because as a child I didn’t really have anything to do at his home.

My father’s name was Zygmunt. He was born on 3rd July 1892 in Jaroslaw [some 150 km west of Lwow]. Why there? I don’t know; his family had never lived there. My father completed a… cadet school, I guess, and if not that, then something of the sort. An Austrian one. A military school, simply. Yes, and he served in the Austrian [KuK] army 6 as an Austrian officer. In 1915 or 1916, wounded in the leg, he was taken prisoner by the Russians, and returned only after the war, after the [Russian] Revolution [of 1917] 7, in fact. I don’t know precisely, but I think he spent two years of captivity in Krasnoyarsk [now Russia, third-largest city in Siberia]. He said he had been billeted somewhere, it was not a camp or anything of the sort – a billet. He had an orderly and received 50 rubles a month for expenses – from the tsarist government, as a prisoner of war. All the officers received money, it was like soldiers’ pay. I don’t know how it was with that orderly, whether he paid his expenses? I guess so. I don’t know the details.

Well, he also told me he had had some good time there with the daughters of all those local nabobs… the term is ‘kupechiskaya doch’ [in Russian], the merchant’s daughter. He played the piano very well, danced nicely – that I can imagine… And then he was released. Yes, when the Revolution broke out [1917], he forged his way back to Poland. On his own. I don’t know the details. Later, in Poland, he joined the Polish Army [On 11th November 1918, Jozef Pilsudski took command of the 30,000-strong Polish army. Within two months, he brought it up to 100,000]. He was in the Polish Army, but he never served in the [Polish] Legions 8.

My mother’s name was Henryka, and she was born on 23rd March 1900 in Lwow, I remember the date exactly. Grandfather Singer had six kids. All were born in Lwow. The oldest one, Leopold, took over the business. He worked there first, and then, when Grandfather, so to speak, opted out, he took over. He had studied something, but I don’t remember what it was. Leopold may have been a year or two older than my mother. There wasn’t much age difference between them. My mother was closer with him than with any other of her siblings. Leopold married a very beautiful lady. I was there at their wedding because I remember I carried the bride’s train. I don’t remember her name. The wedding took place at the Tempel. I remember, I was wearing this pink dress, with roses… not hemmed, but arranged in a semicircle at the bottom. I was very proud of that dress, that’s why I remember it so well. I was seven, perhaps eight years old. Their daughter’s name was Ilona. They lived on Kollataja Street [now Mentsynskoho].

After Leopold, Grandfather had daughters. One after another. First came my mother. She studied what today you’d call biology, at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwow [founded 1817 as Lwow University, 1920-1939 known as the Jan Kazimierz University, famous for its scientific schools, among other things: the Lwow School of Mathematics, the Lwow-Warsaw School of Philosophy, and the Lwow School of Anthropology. Now: Ivan Franko National University in Lwow]. But she never worked a single day in her life. Neither Mama nor any of her sisters. They had help at home. Of course. They had cooks, there was a nanny.

After Mother, two aunts were born: Malwina and Felicja. Malwina was the elder. Felicja was the youngest of the sisters. I don’t know whether Malwina completed any studies. She married Jakub Wueschik. I remember them very well because after getting married they lived for a long time with my grandparents. I guess they got married shortly after I was born. I don’t remember where he worked, but I think it was some office. They had a daughter named Ela who was born late, very late. In the 1930s. Of the cousins, I was the eldest, then came my brother Jerzy, I guess, then Ilona, and Ela was the youngest.

Felicja completed the ‘Kunstgewerbeschule’ in Vienna. That was something like a fine arts college. She was a wonderful embroiderer. She’d make a drawing and then transfer it onto the canvas. She married later than Malwina, much later. I don’t remember her husband’s first name, but his last name was Mantel because I remember her as Felusia Mantel. Her husband was a very nice, affable man. They had no children.

My mother’s brother Maurycy completed the German polytechnic in Brno in Czechoslovakia, after which he returned to Lwow. Mother’s youngest brother was called Edward, and he had a law degree from Jan Kazimierz University. He had graduated and was preparing for his internship exam I guess. I remember him pacing to and fro in my grandparents’ dim bedroom with those books, learning. Edward was a bachelor and until the last moment lived with his parents. I was very close with him, my youngest uncle. The age difference between us was eleven years. I always went to him when I couldn’t solve some homework problem.

I don’t know how my parents met, but it was a marriage of love, that’s for sure. The wedding took place on 29th June 1921, on Peter and Paul [an important saints’ day in Poland]. I remember that because it was an anniversary that we celebrated every year. I remember my parents’ wedding photo. My father was dressed in his lieutenant’s uniform and when they left the Tempel, his officer friends held up their sabers [crossed in a guard of honor above the newlyweds’ heads, for luck]. There was a photo of that at home. I know they were wed by Rabbi Freund. My father had dark blonde hair, blue eyes, and a small moustache. He was extremely handsome. My mother, as I remember her, was beautiful. She had chestnut-brown hair, dark eyes, very fair skin, and beautiful hands. At first she kept her hair in a bun, but then suddenly she started cropping it.

My mother was very kind. Father was firmer, he was the master of the house. I didn’t fear my mother, I feared my father. This means that if I was supposed to be back home at eight, I’d be back not five past eight but five to eight. No one ever hit me or anything, but it was enough when my father looked at me… He was so firm that when I was asking him for something, I’d always say, ‘Daddy, Daddy, please don’t say no at once.’

I don’t know whether it was from the beginning of his military service, but when I was about to be born, my father was stationed in Bedzin [a town in Upper Silesia, some 15 km north of Katowice]. My mother was staying with him in Bedzin, but when the delivery date was nearing, she returned to Lwow to be with her family. Then my father was demobilized, after which he came to Lwow and got a job in bank. I don’t know when precisely, but I suppose it was shortly after my birth [1922]. He was demobilized rather than quitting himself. Eventually, he was promoted to the position of assistant manager, and the institution’s full name was Powszechny Bank Zwiazkowy, Main Branch in Lwow, Headquarters in Warsaw. It was the largest private bank in Poland.

My brother’s name was Jerzy and he was six years younger than me. He was born on 1st August 1928. A tall blonde man with blue eyes, a classic Nordic type. His hobby was DIY. That I remember. Dismantling everything and then putting it back together. We weren’t on good terms, I mean the terms were such that he was very… how to put it… I’d sometimes dress in secret in those very thin stockings, which I bought with my pocket money. That was towards the end, around 1938, 1939. Those stockings often would run, because it wasn’t nylon, after all. And I remember he’d stalk me, and when he saw I had those stockings on, he’d blackmail me he’d tell Mother. I had to give him 10 or 20 groszy. Yes, I got pocket money. I actually got double pocket money: from my parents and from Grandfather. Besides that, I also got money for the tram. Every day, and I always went on foot. So that was extra money that I saved. My brother hadn’t started gymnasium when the war broke out.

Our apartment at 37 Skarbkowska was smaller than my grandparents’: it had four rooms, a bathroom and a kitchen. There was a bedroom, a dining room, my room, and my father’s study, which, after my brother was born, became his room. I remember that in the dining room hung a beautiful mirror in a gilded frame, a very large one, from the floor almost to the ceiling. A huge one. In the dining room there was also a lounge section. There was a table, some chairs, a dining area.

In my room there was a three-section wardrobe with a mirror on the outside. There was a couch, a small desk, a chair. And that was it. The room wasn’t large. The windows overlooked the backyard. Those in my parents’ bedroom and in the dining room overlooked the street. We had gas – I’m talking about the last years. The bathroom had a gas heater, and there was gas in the kitchen. It wasn’t a regular cooker, but just two burners set into a tiled shelf. There was also a standard tiled stove in the kitchen. Dinner was usually prepared on that standard stove, on the hot plate. The bathroom was accessed from my parents’ bedroom. The bathroom had no window, and wasn’t large. There was a bathtub, and a toilet. The entrance to the other toilet was in the hall – no one else lived on the first floor. Only we lived there.

We spoke Polish at home. Initially, when my parents didn’t want me to understand, they’d switch to German. Later they could no longer do that because I learned German. My mother knew French, that I remember for sure. That was part of a good upbringing. A couple of years before the war, not many, say, three years – more or less – my father started learning English. I don’t know why, obviously he needed it for something.

My parents subscribed to Chwila 6. The editor-in-chief of Chwila was [Marian] Hemar’s brother – Marian Hemar 7 was only his pen name. His real name was Hescheles. I’m sure my parents bought Chwila every day. And I remember there was some popular evening paper, only I’m not sure what it was called… Ekspress Wieczorny [Ekspress Wieczorny Ilustrowany] or something like that. My mother was an avid reader, and Father liked to read too.

I remember that every day at 12 noon my mother went to a café that was called Roma, on Akademicki Square [now Shevchenky Prospekt]. There she’d meet with her friends, and then she’d come back home. We, the children, had had our dinner earlier. Mother waited for Father to come back from work. I guess they ate their dinner at three, perhaps half past three. After dinner, Father played patience. He never slept during the daytime. Mother would take a nap, and at seven in the evening they’d go out. That’s how people lived then. [They’d go] to a restaurant, a café, to friends’ homes.

My father had a hobby at home: playing patience and playing an instrument. From his father, a musician in Vienna, he had inherited a good ear for music. Yes, and we had a piano at home. Father was very fond of those Russian ballads, songs like ‘Ochi Chyornye’ [Russian for ‘Black Eyes’]. And he liked to play that. Besides, I remember him playing Schubert songs, and other pieces by various composers. But it wasn’t as though he played every day; it was from time to time. He was a reserve officer, from time to time he was called up for maneuvers. Sometime in the 1930s he went on maneuvers in Kobryn [now in western Belarus, some 50 km from the Polish border] in the Polesie area. And I even remember he was in the 83rd Infantry Regiment.

I remember also that my father was a sports activist. There was a sports club called Hasmonea Lwow 11, and Father was an official there. He had played football as a boy, but after he was wounded in the knee, football became impossible. He had friends. There was a guy named Wacek Kuchar, for instance, a sports activist, and I think they were friends. From early childhood I went with Father to all the football matches. From Hasmonea I remember… Sztejerman [Zygmunt Stauermann, one of the team’s leading players], the name has somehow stuck. Sztejerman [Stauermann]. Perhaps I’m mixing something up, I’m not sure. My father was a believer in sport. I swam and skied. With school we went to a swimming pool called Zelazna Woda [Polish for ‘Iron Water,’ an open-air swimming pool in Lwow]. We often went swimming instead of gymnastics, but that was only in the summer. Or in the spring, if it was warm. In the winter, I skied. I had my own skis, my own ski suit, my own everything.

My father’s political views… above all, he was an admirer of Pilsudski 12. He was a fervent supporter of his, and Zionism didn’t prevent him at all from being so. I don’t remember whether he belonged to any Zionist party. My parents never thought of emigrating from Poland, they never had such plans. But in 1935 or 1936 my mother’s younger brother, Maurycy, left. I think there was supposed to be a Maccabiada [now called the Maccabiah Games, an Olympic-style event first held in 1932 in Palestine] and he left Lwow with the Maccabi 13 team and then got through to Palestine. He returned two years later. Why? Well, he obviously didn’t like it. He married a girl from Cracow there and they returned, but not to Lwow. They went to Cracow, and he worked somewhere half an hour away in a quarry. I don’t remember whether it was Krzeszowice or some other place. Somewhere where there were stone pits [quarries can be found across the whole Cracow-Czestochowa Uplands, also near Krzeszowice]. I don’t remember what that wife of his was called, but I remember from when he came to visit us with her that she was very ugly.

We had a nanny at home, my mother’s wet nurse. In fact, she had been with Grandfather’s family in Vienna, and it was her who actually brought me up. When I was born in 1922, she had been with the family for 22 years. Her name was Jula. What was her last name? I don’t know, to us she was always simply Jula, Nanny Jula. She was Polish, the illegitimate daughter of a landlord and a governess, I remember that, but I don’t remember where her father’s estate was. She lived in the same house as us. We lived on the first floor, and she lived on the second, in something like a studio. She had been given it for life. And she virtually governed the whole house. The relationship was such that she’d give mother a free hand to do this or that, but she wasn’t a harridan. She was simply extremely devoted to my mother and my mother was the most important person in the world for her.

She brought me up, and she brought up my brother. I remember how she used to tell him bedtime stories and I would listen in. And one more thing – all the Polish, i.e. Catholic, holidays were always celebrated at our home. Yes, she always organized them. There was always a Christmas tree. The tree, the Christmas Eve dinner [the high point of the Polish Christmas], the sharing of the wafer [a thin, communion-style wafer, shared with family before eating Christmas Eve dinner to accompany the giving of Christmas wishes]. She’d share the wafer with us. Yes, and the gifts… we never had gifts under the tree. Gifts were given on 6th December, St. Nicholas day. That was the gift-giving day. You had to place all your shoes and slippers in front of your bed, and, in the morning, there’d be gifts there. I was given gifts on my birthday and on St. Nicholas day.

At the Dominican church, I knew all the altars, which one was for which saint. Nanny took first me to church, and then my brother, as there was six years’ age difference between us and, at some point, I stopped going. With Nanny I went to the Catholic church, and with our maid to the Uniate one. That Uniate church [the Greek Catholic Church of the Transubstantiation, originally the Trinitarian church] on Krakowska Street… well, I know every little stone there. They [the nanny and the maid] went there every Sunday, so they’d take us with them. And my parents wouldn’t say anything – no, no! People didn’t devote as much time to children then as they do today. My parents led a very intense social life. And the children brought themselves up at home. There was a nanny, there was a maid, so the kids were virtually on their own.

Besides the maid there was also a cook, but they kept changing. The servants kept changing, but the nanny was always the same. The last cook we had – I remember her well – got married. She slept in the kitchen. There was a recess there, and that’s where she slept. Most of those were Ruthenian women; no one used the name ‘Ukrainian’ back then. [The denomination ‘Ruthenian’ was used to describe a number of Eastern Slavic nations or ethnic groups such as the Ukrainians, Lemkos, Boykos, and Hutsuls.]

On the second floor of our house lived Lila Amirowicz. She was Armenian, and the same age as me. Her father was the director, or vice-director, of the Polish Post Office in Lwow. She played with us in the courtyard and often dragged us… no, wrong word – took us to the Armenian Cathedral that stood at our street [Editor’s note: this cathedral was built in 1356-1363 as an Armenian church to the design of the Italian architect Dorchi; major changes in 1908; mosaics by Jozef Mehoffer, paintings by Jakiv Rosen; returned to the community in 2002.] Only a little way down the street. Lwow had three archbishops: a Roman Catholic one, a Greek Catholic one, and an Armenian one [Jozef Teodorowicz, 1864-1938, archbishop 1902-1938]. Both the Armenian Cathedral and the Armenian archbishop’s residence stood at Skarbkowska. And we often played in the residence’s courtyards and gardens.

My [favorite] playmate at that time was Marysia Jodlowska. She was Ukrainian. Her father had worked as caretaker at Grandfather’s two houses since time immemorial, in any case since before the [Great] War. Later, my grandfather paid for Marysia’s high school, a Ukrainian one that she had been accepted to. Marysia was a year younger than me. We played either outside or at our place. At home we played with dolls. I had a dolls’ house with all the fittings, which I’d been given by Grandmother, Father’s mother. I had heaps of dolls, and because they all had porcelain faces, something was always happening to one or the other of them. And I remember that there was this ‘Doll Clinic,’ this shop where you could take china dolls to be mended. In the yard we played hopscotch, ball, and ‘two fires’ [Polish ‘dwa ognie,’ a team ball game]. Other kids would come to play with us too, but no boys, only girls. Lila would come, too. Because the two houses stood next to each other, there was a wall between them, and in the wall, a gate. The backyard of the house where I lived was small, but the backyard of my grandparents’ house was huge, ending with a wall at Strzelecki Square [now Danyly Halytskoho], so in fact there were two plots. Some very nice sycamore trees grew there.

Yes, I wanted to go to school. It was an ordinary Polish school, named after Stanislaw Staszic. A public school. With a good reputation. Next to it stood the Stanislaw Staszic School for Boys, and the entrance to that one was from Skarbkowska, and the entrance to the one for girls, because it was on the corner, was from either Podwale or from Strzelecki Square. The girls’ school faced the buildings of the fire brigade and the medical emergency service. And from there it was very near to Waly Gubernatorskie [Governor’s Embankment, raised in the 19th century in the place of the former city fortifications, a popular promenade] – something like an uneven levee. You climbed up steps. On the embankment was a very broad, huge chestnut-lined avenue. There was also a historical monument, the Baszta Prochowa [Gunpowder Tower, a powder magazine built in 1554-1556, presently the Architects’ House]. We called it the Powder House, but we never went there. And down there, quite far, it seems to me, on the other side, was a street.

My first reminiscences from school are that I was very happy to be assigned to ‘A’ class, because ‘A’ was for ‘angels,’ and ‘B’ was something bad. But when Mother took me to school for the first time, she met her former teacher there, a Mrs. Madejska, who advised her to move me to the ‘B’ class after all. And Mom moved me to ‘B’ right away.

Mrs. Madejska was my first-grade class tutor. My subsequent tutors included Gertruda Ajrhorn and Zofia Gubrynowicz. In fact, Zofia Gubrynowicz was my tutor for a longer time than Miss Ajrhorn. The latter, despite her German name, was a great Polish patriot. Most of the teachers were, I guess, Polish. But I was simply not interested in all that at that time. Miss Ajrhorn was an old maid, in a long black skirt and a long-sleeved blouse, with a stand-up collar and a beautiful gold cameo. It was actually her who infected me with love for literature. Mrs. Gubrynowicz, in turn, was married and had sons who sometimes visited her at school. She was very cheerful. We loved her very much. We feared the other one [Ajrhorn], and her we loved.

I was actually the best student. I had no difficulties whatsoever. My favorite subjects? Polish literature. I also liked history and natural science. There was even a period when I was wondering whether not to become a naturalist. I had a fantastic memory. I learned to read from Zipper’s Greek myths at the age of four. There was a library at home, and that book stood on the lower shelf, which I could reach, and had beautiful illustrations. I suppose Nanny must have taught me some, because someone had to help me with letters, right? It wasn’t only street signboards… And I also remember that in the second grade my teacher, Mrs. Madejska, called my mother to ask her not to do my homework for me; the thing was that I wrote a composition that started like this: ‘Zeus lived on Olympus, Zeus was the god of the Greeks.’ That was the first sentence and the teacher was convinced my mother had helped me write it. And it turned out that I had already read the whole of Greek mythology.

No, I didn’t have any male friends. The only boys I knew were the sons of my parents’ relatives or friends. I had no other boy friends whatsoever. And girl friends – well, I had them. I had girl friends, classmates, it was always a circle here, a circle there. In my class there were Ukrainian kids, Polish ones, and Jewish ones. The Polish, i.e. the Roman Catholic ones, were the most numerous, then the Jewish ones, and the Ruthenian girls were relatively few. I remember religious classes. My elementary school religion teacher was called Wurm. I don’t remember his first name. There was also a Greek Catholic teacher, and a Roman Catholic one. They’d always arrive all three together. We’d go to the different classrooms, and the lessons took place simultaneously. We learned above all the Torah, and besides that, it was Jewish history. I don’t remember much because I never cared for it. Present in body, absent in mind. I was simply not interested in all that.

My father, who was a Zionist, had decided his daughter should know Hebrew, so twice a week, I think, I went to the Tarbut for two hours to learn Hebrew. The Tarbut was located at Za Zbrojownia Street. It’s easy to calculate – I was six when I went to elementary school, and I went there for six years, i.e. until the age of twelve. During that time, I learned Hebrew, only I don’t remember whether it was for three years or four. Anyway, I studied it for quite a long time. It was a co-ed class. Boys and girls. The teachers were all men, and the classes came in pairs. The first class was based on the Torah, and I remember that towards the end of my education at the Tarbut, we were reading not only the main text but also one of the commentaries, because under the Hebrew text of the Torah there are Rashi’s commentaries in small print. That was the first class, and the second one was based on some [non-religious] texts.

I attended those lessons all angry, because instead of playing with my girl friends, I had to sit there and study. And, in fact, I was probably the worst student in my class. I remember that when I went to high school and met there one of the girls that had been at the Tarbut with me, she was surprised that I was such a good student, because she remembered me as having trouble in school all the time. I simply didn’t want to be learning Hebrew. I was learning it against myself because my father wanted me to. My father didn’t know Hebrew so he couldn’t examine me. Absolutely. No one in the family could.

I belonged to no interest groups or organizations. I didn’t want to, and there was no talk about it at home either. I was all absorbed with school, and I was also going to the Tarbut. I remember that if I went with anyone for a walk as a child, it was to the [Governor’s] Embankment, the High Castle [Lwow’s highest hill with the ruins of a fortress destroyed by the Swedes in 1704], or to the Stryjski Park. Later, as a teenage girl, I had to go to school from eight in the morning, and after school there was dinner, there was homework to do, there were meetings to attend, so I didn’t really have that much time for myself, and at eight I had to be back home. It wasn’t like I could come five or ten past. Discipline was really strict. Of course, during the day I could play in the backyard, but to play on the street – that was out of the question. The street was only ‘there and back.’

My mother chose the gymnasium and high school for me. In fact, she directed my whole education, Father didn’t interfere at all. I took exams in Polish literature and math. It was Dr. Adela Karp-Fuchsowa’s private gymnasium and high school. There were three good private high schools in Lwow: [Zofia] Strzalkowska’s, Karp-Fuchsowa’s, and Olga Filippi-Zychowiczowa’s; my mother went to the latter, but she considered it too far from home. There were twenty-odd of us in the class. There were two classes. Unlike my elementary school, the high school was situated a long way from home, on Krasickich Street [now Ohiyenka]. It was for everyone, not only Jews.

Our class tutor at high school was Wanda Ladniewska-Blankenheim. My history teacher was Halina Poeckhowa. A very eloquent lady, and a very beautiful one too. I remember that the husband of the owner and superior, Zygmunt Fuchs, was a professor at the Lwow Polytechnic [Poland’s oldest technical university, founded 1844], at the aerodynamics faculty [head of the Aerodynamic Laboratory at the mechanics faculty] where not a single Jew was admitted [due to Anti-Semitism in Poland in the 1930s] 14. And he, though he was a Jew, was a professor there. The Fuchses lived in the school building and we often met the professor on the stairs. We called him Malzon, from ‘malzonek’ [Polish for ‘husband’], or Prince Husband. I know that in 1937 or 1938 they were in the United States for half a year, and he was offered tenure, but she wouldn’t agree because the school was her life’s work and she couldn’t imagine not going back. And so they returned, and both lost their lives.

On 3rd May 15 and 11th November [celebration of Poland’s independence, 1918] there were always street parades and the whole school had to attend. I don’t remember going on those parades in elementary school, but in high school we did. Obligatorily. I remember that when Pilsudski went to Madeira [Portuguese island in the Atlantic where Pilsudski took a vacation between December 1930 and March 1931], I was probably in elementary school. Each of the pupils had written a name-day greetings card that we then sent to Madeira [Pilsudski’s name day was 19th March]. There was a cult surrounding Pilsudski in elementary school and in high school, absolutely. Yes, [on the wall] there was the Polish eagle [national emblem], a portrait of Moscicki [Ignacy Moscicki, president of Poland 1926-1939], and a portrait of Pilsudski.

Books. All my life books have been my hobby. First fairytales. All kinds of them. Then my first book was ‘The Heart of a Boy’ by Amicis [Edmondo De, Italian writer, 1846-1908]. Many people were raised on it at that time. Those were short stories in which there was always some poor person, and in the end that person was always rewarded by fate – he or she would come out the winner. Then came a period of adventure books. I read almost all the novels by Karl May [1842-1912, German writer, author of popular adventure books about Native Americans and the Wild West]. And, in 1937, 1938, I suddenly started discovering great literature. I remember that it started with the French writers of literature and Alexandre Dumas. I also read Ehrenburg’s 16 ‘13 Pipes’ and ‘The Love of Jeanne Ney.’ In 1939 or in early 1940 my father gave me the ‘Silent Don’ [epic novel about the Don Cossacks; consecutive volumes in 1928, 1932, 1940, by Mikhail Sholokhov (1905-1984), Russian novelist and Nobel prize winner] to read. All that, of course, in Polish translation. Then came Romain Rolland [1866-1944, French writer and Nobel prize winner] and his ‘Colas Breugnon’ [1918], a book I’ve loved ever since and which I reach for every time I feel blue. Generally, however, no one recommended books to me. I took some off the shelf myself, I borrowed others.

I remember that one of the Tempel’s three rabbis, Dr. Dawid Kahane 17, was, in the latter part of my high school education, my religion teacher. He was very handsome, actually, and we all had a crush on him. I remember precisely the Tempel’s interior of that period. It was shaped like a semicircle. The balconies were white with gold ornaments, and the balustrades were red saffian. Next to those balustrades was a white-and-gold grating that separated the men from the women, as women were, of course, not allowed to sit with men. The men sat downstairs, and the women upstairs, on those balconies. There were three balconies, so there were three floors. On the right, on the top floor, stood the choir. What kind of windows did the Tempel have? In any case, kind of semicircular ones. There was the Ark of the Covenant [aron kodesh], placed in roughly the same place as the stage in a theater, rather than in the center. And on both sides of the Ark, on that platform, there were kind of stalls, each with three seats. On the one side sat the three rabbis, and on the other the cantors. And that was the elevated part. You went up the stairs. The Great Synagogue in Malmo, Sweden, actually shares this design, though it is not as beautiful. What else I remember… wooden benches, prayer book compartments in them, on the compartment lid was a nameplate. Everyone had their own place paid up.

But how do I remember all that? It’s not only that I went to the synagogue with Grandma – I used to go with her as a girl, but later, when I was 14 or 15, I no longer went with her. When I was in high school, roughly once a month we attended the so-called exhortation [a sermon, religious lecture, directed at a specific audience, usually students] at the Tempel. We went there with our religion teacher. Jewish male and female students would come, and a service was held, and then a lecture in Polish. The lecture was often delivered by the incumbent rabbi, Dr. Jecheskiel Lewin. Those were marvelous sermons – delivered in pure, beautiful Polish. Those sermons were very moving.

Dr. Jecheskiel Lewin lived with his wife and daughter at 3 Kollataja Street, on the first floor. I remember, because on the third floor of the same house lived Leopold, my mother’s brother. The oldest of the Tempel’s three rabbis was Rabbi Freund, short, with a little gray beard – the one that had wed my parents. All three sat together during the service. Not always, sometimes only two of them, but on the important holidays, when I went there with Grandmother, there were all three. In fact, of all the temples I went to, I liked the Tempel synagogue the most [Mrs. Wiener is comparing the Tempel with churches in Lwow]. The Tempel was located on Zolkiewska Street. Not where Grandmother lived, but much farther up the street [Dora Bodenstein lived at 83 Zolkiewska].

Somewhere towards the end of Zolkiewska, close to Sloneczna Street, was the Jewish quarter [see Lwow Jewish district] 18. I don’t know what it was called. There certainly were Orthodox Jews in Lwow, absolutely there were, but you just didn’t see them in the city. They kept within their quarter. Did I ever go there? As a teenager – not as a girl – perhaps. My grandmother lived on Zolkiewska so it’s not impossible that I may have wandered there on some occasion.

In my high school days, I never wore anything but a navy blue uniform or a navy blue skirt with a white blouse. Oh yes. I didn’t have any other clothes, I mean, I did, in the summer, have various summer dresses, for the vacations, but during the school year – the uniform. I don’t mean a single uniform. There was a woolen one, a georgette one, but it was always the same cut; moreover, the woolen ones had an inset, which in gymnasium was blue, and in high school it was maroon. The berets were the same, with a blue or maroon inset. I also wore a badge with the school’s number on my coat. And at some point, it must have been late 1938, or early 1939, I rebelled against that. And even my grandparents intervened that perhaps it would make sense to… and so on… And my parents somehow consented to that. I remember that Mother said then, ‘It’ll be better if you go with Father.’ And indeed, when I went with Father, I got material for a coat, I got material for a dress – because in those times clothes were made by tailors. I also got a handbag and a pair of shoes. I got much more than I would have if I had gone with Mother.

My mother had [her own] dressmaker. I don’t remember where the shop was located, but I remember where Mother had her hats made. I got my first two hats from Mother’s milliner. The first was a kind of cherry red… It was a felt hat with kind of laps [a turned up brim] and here [under the chin] it had strings like small girls wore – so that it didn’t fall off. The strings were made of the same felt. And I remember I cried for a long time there because I wanted the hat to be without it. The other hat was a small tricorn, a bit like the French kepi. It was navy blue, decorated with a tartan ribbon.

At high school, we went to the theater every month, and it was chiefly with school that I went to the theater. My parents never refused me money for school or the movies. I remember my first film, it was a nature documentary. I remember the movies from 1937, 1938, 1939, because I used to go to the movies a lot then. I remember French films, which I very much liked. My favorite actress was Michèle Morgan [b. 1920, French actress], who acted with Jean Gabin [1904-1976, French actor] in ‘People in the Fog’ [Editor’s note: actually called ‘Port of Shadows,’ 1938, directed by Marcel Carne, acknowledged as a masterpiece of poetic realism]. I also liked those musicals with Jeanette MacDonald [1903-1965; American actress], such as ‘Rose-Marie’ [1936]. I somehow wasn’t one of those girls who fall in love with movie actors, get crazy about them, collect their photos – nothing of the sort.

I used to go to the movies with a girl friend of mine, and always for the afternoon show. Never with my parents. I remember that every Sunday, I don’t know what time, probably 9pm, the city would become deserted, with everyone hurrying home to listen to the Wesola Lwowska Fala [Jolly Lwow Wave], a [radio] show [Radio Lwow’s hugely popular weekly show, broadcast nationally in 1933-1939. Created by Wiktor Budzynski, author of most of the scripts. The show presented a broad range of Lwow yokel types, including, most popular of all, a ‘batyar’ (Lwow street smart) double act: Szczepko (K. Wajda) and Toncio (Henryk Vogelfaenger) and comedians parodying the Jewish accent: Aprikosenkrantz and Untenbaum]. And I certainly listened to all those shows.

In my family, no one had a car. We lived so centrally we didn’t have to; if we needed to get somewhere, we could always take the tram. But, in fact, I always went everywhere on foot. I remember that the father of one of my friends had a car, a Buick. He did. One time, it was 1937, perhaps 1938, we went to Jaremcze [now Yaremche, Ukraine, known as the ‘pearl of the Carpathians,’ above all as a sanatorium for tuberculosis patients] on vacation. All the girls and boys were there with their mothers, and the fathers would usually come [every Saturday]. And one day the father of that friend of mine came by car, and took us for a ride. His chauffeur drove, because in those times few people drove themselves, even if they had a car and liked to drive.

I always spent my vacations in the mountains. And it was always the Prut Valley, or the Opor Valley [in the Eastern Carpathians, also known as the Ukrainian Carpathians]. So either it was Jaremcze-Worochta [now Vorokhta, Ukraine, famous for its Hutsul history and traditions, some 20 km from Yaremche; approx. 200 km south of Lwow], or Skole-Hrebenov [some 120 km south of Lwow]. I never saw the Polish sea. Once, one single time, I went with Father to Zakopane [Poland’s largest ski and mountaineering resort]. We stayed in a hotel called Stamara. I remember that one time I got really cold and we stopped at some inn at the entrance to the Strazyska valley to drink… not hot mead, I don’t know – something with dried fruit and nuts. I felt very proud, and later I told all my friends about it.

In Jaremcze and in Skole we usually stayed in guest houses. The one in Jaremcze was called Majestic, it was quite large. I don’t remember what the one in Worochta was called, because we went to Jaremcze more often than to Worochta, and always stayed in the same place. We always went with Mother; Father would only come for the weekends. We went for two months, July-August. Once, when my brother was ill, I spent some time in Brzuchowice [now Briukhovychi, Ukraine] near Lwow. It was a beautiful place set in a pine forest. I went there with Nanny to be with him, because Mother could not.

I remember that in September 1938 my father went for treatment to Truskawiec [now Truskavets, Ukraine, some 100 km south of Lwow, one of the newest and most popular health resorts of the interwar period; known above all for treatments for the digestive system], and he demanded I come to accompany him. As soon as I arrived, I had to leave, because everything in that place smelled of petroleum. I could neither eat nor drink anything, because of those deposits [deposits of ozokerite, ‘mountain wax,’ as well as springs of natural mineral water with a high content of organic oil-derived compounds].

My parents were friends with the Fisch couple. The Fisches had two daughters. One was older than me and was called Fela, the other was younger and her name was Tusia. Fela was a black-eyed blonde. I, as you can see, am chestnut-haired by nature. The younger one, Tusia, had red hair and green eyes. We frequently went on summer vacation together. To keep each other company and not get bored, our mothers would arrange where to go on vacation every year together. Our two families, I mean. Tusia and Fela’s father was a businessman, but what his business was, I don’t know. If I remember correctly, we stayed in Skole, in a villa called Arkadia.

We had these dirndl dresses, with short, leg-of-mutton sleeves, tight here [at the waist], wide there [at the bottom]. All the dirndls were black, with flowers embroidered on a black background – I don’t remember who had flowers of what color. There were blue ones, red ones, and green ones, and to go with that a matching mini-apron. Yes, those aprons were the same color as the flowers. And I remember that when we appeared for the first time on the promenade, some boys we knew nicknamed us ‘the three graces from Arkadia.’

The tallest of those boys was named Kubus Rosenbaum. His uncle was called Probst and worked as a doctor in Skole, and Kubus would come to stay with him for the vacation from some other place, not a large one, where, if I’m not wrong, his father was a public notary. I also remember Marian Urich – not a relative of ours – and Edek Bertrand, I remember those boys. That Edek Bertrand was from Lwow, he was younger than me, and Marian Urich was a friend of Tusia’s. I also remember Jozef Grosskopf and Danuta Wilk. If the weather was good we’d spend the mornings by the river. The Opor and the Prut are mountain rivers, but you could always find somewhere to bathe. I remember that we played volleyball, too. After dinner we would go for walks, and then supper and to sleep.

My girl friend went to the Strzalkowska high school, and her name was Rena Ruker. Our parents knew each other. Perhaps they weren’t friends, but they knew each other well, and we met somewhere, sometime, during the summer vacation. After that, we’d almost always go together. Her father was the director of the Baczewski plant [famous vodka and liqueur manufacturer]. Those were the best vodkas in pre-war Poland. The plant was founded in 1782, and I remember the following anecdote: in some exam, the examiner wanted to direct the student to the right date, so he asks him, ‘And what does the year 1782 tell you?’ And the student says, ‘The founding of Baczewski.’

Another person I remember from Lwow is Stanislaw Lem 19. I knew him as a young boy. He is older than me. I knew the crowd to which he belonged. After the war, however, I had no contact with Lem whatsoever. I simply learned very late that Stanislaw Lem was that boy Manius I had known before the war. Yes. He lived on Brajerowska Street [now Lepkoho], near my high school, I even remember which house. Yes.

I remember one street demonstration in Lwow [see Workers’ demonstrations in Lwow in 1936] 20. It all started when a worker died and an order came to bury him at the Lyczakowski cemetery. The medical school was nearby, the dissection rooms, so I guess it was there [his autopsy was done]. In any case, there’s no doubt he was supposed to be buried at the Lyczakowski. There were two cemeteries in Lwow: the Lyczakowski and the Janowski. The Janowski one was, so to say, more proletarian. And those who were leading the funeral protest march suddenly decided to bury that worker at the Janowski, and so the demonstration marched through the whole city, because the cemeteries were at opposite ends. I remember that because as they marched they broke all the windows. And among other things they broke a window in the bank where my father worked. And it happened as the protesters wanted – he was buried at the Janowski. I, naturally, wasn’t watching that protest march, in fact, if anything was going off, no one would let me out of the house.

Neither in elementary school nor in high school did I ever come up against anti-Semitism. Absolutely never. I actually never even thought about it… I simply accepted the fact that there were different kinds of people. There was no problem for me, until around 1938 when there were riots in the universities and three students got killed [see Murders of Jewish students in Lwow 1938-1939] 21. I remember their names: Karol Celermajer, Marian Probeller, I don’t remember what the third one’s first name was, but his last name was Wasserberg or Wasserman.

The procedure was that the Polytechnic came to beat up [Jewish students] at the University, and the university students went to play hell at the Polytechnic. For instance, I mean. It wasn’t that students from one school would beat up students from the same school. They used clubs, clubs with razors. And as well, at the turn of October and November, but above all in November, some streets were out of bounds, because you’d get beaten up there. I don’t know why then. One such street, for instance, was Lozinskiego [now Hertzena], where a dormitory was located, only I don’t remember which school’s. The Polytechnic’s? Anyway, everyone knew that in November Lozinskiego and the end of Akademicka were out of bounds to Jews. And that was when I came up against the problem [of anti-Semitism] for the first time.

I passed my high school finals in May 1939. I must have taken Polish and math, but I simply don’t remember that! [Mrs. Wiener says she has repressed many memories concerning the war and the period immediately preceding it.] I wanted to study microbiology. And then it all somehow… [Mrs. Wiener passed the entrance exams for the microbiology faculty at the Jan Kazimierz University in 1939.]

My father kept saying there’d be a war. Above all – that’s my hypothesis – he came to believe in that war, in its inevitability, I mean, after the Germans had taken Czechoslovakia [see German occupation of Czechoslovakia] 22. Absolutely, because Austria, you know, it was Hitler’s homeland, a German-speaking country – so that was understandable. When, following the Anschluss 23, Hitler entered Vienna, he threw all the Jews who had Polish rather than Austrian citizenship out to Poland. Among them was my father’s cousin, and I remember that when that cousin came to Lwow, the whole family took care of him. And he kept missing his wife, who wasn’t a Jew, and his two children. She was an Austrian and had stayed with the children in Vienna. And he missed them terribly. That I remember. I don’t remember his name.

I didn’t think of the war as a real threat at all. Absolutely not. On 1st September [see September Campaign 1939] 24, it was Friday, I think, I was with a boy friend of mine at the High Castle. We were sitting on a kind of promontory, near the Sobieski Rock, we looked – there were airplanes coming. As we were looking at those planes, we thought we heard explosions, and came to the conclusion it was some military exercise, because it was the last days, you know. The army had been mobilized [on 30th August a general mobilization order had been announced and subsequently repealed, and on 31st August a mobilization order was announced again]. And at some point some people came up to us and say: ‘What are you doing here? There’re ruins in the city, corpses, and you’re sitting here like doves!’ And we ran [home] right away.

A strange thing. Believe me now, please, that all those years have been erased, that the period right after the war has also been erased from my memory. Oh yes. The war period, well, I won’t be talking about it. Nothing. I don’t want to return to… that period at all… those few years… it doesn’t exist [Editor’s note: Mrs. Wiener has mentioned a few facts that make it possible to a small degree to reconstruct her and her family’s wartime experiences]. I know it was a very harsh winter. That I remember, but when I think of Lwow, I only see the pre-war Lwow. The Lwow of the first few months after the end of military action… it’s all blurry. I never remember it the way I saw it during the war.

I remember that from 9th September we were sitting in a basement, because Lwow was not only being bombed from the air, it was being bombed from the very beginning, but it was also taking artillery fire. That I remember. We sat in that basement all the time, slept there. You climbed up to the apartment to cook something or to fetch something, but you didn’t stay there. And on the 17th my father must have been listening to the radio, because we had a radio – ‘It’s the end!’ He believed that if they [the Russians] were entering Lwow, then it was the end of the Polish state. We had already returned home, the shelling had ended, because for a couple of days they [the Russians] stood at one turnpike and the Germans at the other and some kind of negotiations were taking place – the city wasn’t being shelled anymore. Then, on the 21st, they marched into Lwow. There was a barricade made of stones, of flagstones, on our street, and the first tank that had arrived couldn’t go through. So they ordered the local inhabitants to dismantle the barricade and my father was among them, and because he knew Russian, he made some small talk with the tank driver. Then he returned and said, ‘Nothing has changed there. The same ragged uniforms, the same old rifles and stinking tobacco, only now they have oblasts instead of guberniyas [Russian for ‘districts’ (the Soviet and tsarist terms, respectively)].’

I remember that Grandfather [Jakub] got sick. My father was fired from his bank job. I remember a meeting of the bank’s trade union was held and everyone had to present his or her CV, and someone asked my father: ‘Why didn’t you say that you served in the Polish army?’ Father said, ‘I did,’ and the next day he was fired. And then Mr. Fisch, who was a very enterprising man, found some job for Father in some company, some cooperative that had already been created somewhere.

Grandfather’s tenement houses were nationalized immediately. We were allowed to stay, only Grandfather – because his was a large apartment – was assigned tenants, Russian civilians. A married couple. Uncle Maurycy was already living there too – he and his family had come from Cracow – but there was still excess space in the apartment. They didn’t assign us any extra tenants, because we had already taken in some fugitives from Cracow [see Flight eastwards, 1939] 25.

I left Lwow in 1941, when the Russians were still there. That was the last time I saw my parents. I didn’t say goodbye to them. Things were so that I couldn’t. It was… there were some circumstances… I spent the rest of the war in Russia. I was in Turkestan, in Kazakhstan. Turkestan is a city in Kazakhstan. Everyone mixes it up [thinking Turkestan was one of the Soviet republics] because the whole stretch of land was once called Turkestan. There was no Kazakhstan, no Uzbekistan, there was only Turkestan, and only later did the Soviets divide it up.

I worked as a nurse in an orphanage. I had no previous experience. I was trained. The only thing you could do there besides working was to read. I read a lot. In fact, where I was, in Turkestan, the only thing that was there was a superb city library which had been evacuated from Kharkov or Kiev. So I read there the whole of 19th-century French literature in Russian, let alone the fact that I also read the whole of Russian 19th-century literature in the original. I also learned Russian there – just from listening to it, from various situations, for after all, in Lwow I had nothing to do with Russian. Sure, I spoke Ukrainian, which was then called Ruthenian. I did, because some of our maids sang songs so that I was familiar with it and spoke the language, but after I found myself there, Russian supplanted Ukrainian to the extent that I understand today when Ukrainians speak but I can no longer speak it myself. There I met my husband, Maurycy Wiener, and there I got married. The wedding was non-religious. My husband was born on 1st October 1906 in Cracow. He took a law degree and before the war worked as a lawyer in Cracow.

It was from the radio that I learned the war was over. It wasn’t radio in our sense of the word, but rather a kind of loudspeaker everyone had at home, through which a central message was broadcast. It was like a disk, a black cardboard bowl, and in the centre a metal something. And that was the kind of radio that people in Russia had. It was Radio Moscow broadcast, the Moscow news. The device worked so that I couldn’t change the frequency but only turn it down or off. I saw some light in the tunnel that I would get myself out of Asia.

It was somewhere towards the end of 1945. Repatriation had started [see Evacuation of Poles from the USSR] 26, you had to register and prove you had Polish citizenship. I had an ID card. School ID. It so happened that in Turkestan, where we lived, there were no Poles, but I know that in other places there were. The entire Polish population was repatriated, only reportedly somewhere in Siberia, or somewhere far in the deserts, where people didn’t know, they stayed there.

We repatriated ourselves in due course with all the other pre-war Polish citizens. I was able to choose where I wanted to go. I wouldn’t have gone to Palestine at that time. After the Kazakh steppes, the only thing I wanted was a big city. In fact, I’m a city kid. I simply don’t see myself in the countryside or some Asian city. My husband, because he was a Cracovian, chose Cracow. I didn’t want to go to Lwow because it’s very hard to go back to your home town knowing that no door will open for you. That I have no one to go to. The only door that will open for me will be a hotel door. I really couldn’t understand my husband. For him it was unimportant. For me, it was everything. That our families were dead, that there had been an extermination of the Jews we learned only in Turkestan [in 1939, some 110,000 Jews lived in Lwow, 33% of the population; several thousand returned after the war from the Soviet Union]. I had never imagined anything of the sort.

From Kazakhstan to Poland we went by train. A cargo train. The train stopped only where it was allowed to, i.e. at large stations, sometimes waiting for a free track at some junction. The conditions? The conditions were such that when I came to Cracow and saw a streetcar, I touched it. For me, that tram was a symbol of civilization. The journey lasted from 17th or 18th April to 5th May. We arrived in Cracow-Plaszow on 5th May [1946].

As far as my family is concerned, Anna [Niuka, daughter of Toncia and granddaughter of Adolf], my second-degree cousin, her aunt Irena and myself are the only survivors of the Holocaust. From such a huge family. These two girls. I in Russia and she here, under the occupation, on false papers. Irena survived in Poland, but soon, right after the war ended, immigrated to Switzerland. She had a seriously ill daughter who could be helped only in Switzerland. Apart from her, my whole family perished. Without exception. I learned about their fate from Marysia Jodlowska, my childhood playmate. I had written letters to my grandparents’ address, to our own address, and so on, and those letters somehow found their way to her. And she wrote me back.

Cracow was my husband’s home, but his home as such didn’t exist because his parents were dead. My husband had only one brother, Juliusz, and he was the only one that survived. Juliusz served in the Anders’ army 27, he left Russia with it and never returned to Poland, immigrating right away to Palestine. My husband couldn’t return to his parents’ apartment [because it had already been occupied by someone else] but he had a cousin in Cracow who had come earlier and was already set up. We stayed with him. As my husband was a lawyer, a member of the Cracow bar, he immediately started working at a law firm and earning money.

I will admit honestly that after leaving Russia, the Soviets I mean, when I came to Poland, Cracow was a strange city to me. I had no full sense of returning to my homeland, because one has two homelands: the one meaning of the word ‘homeland’ is language, culture, history, and the other is the house where you lived, the street where your house stood, the commons where you strolled in Lwow. I was returning to my homeland in the broad sense, but everything was strange for me. And one has to have a sense of being at home. But that sense of strangeness soon wore off.

After returning from Russia, I wanted to study, but first I had to prove I had my high school diploma, which I ultimately reconstructed in court on the basis of evidence given by two of my former teachers. Halina Poeckhowa lived in Bytom. I went to see her. She still worked as a teacher. She later died of cancer. Wanda Ladniewska-Blankenheim lived in Paris. She sent her testimony in writing. I tried, I wanted to start studying in 1948, but it turned out I was pregnant and I had to postpone those plans. I delivered a boy – my son [Jerzy], I brought him up a little bit, and in 1952 I went to the Jagiellonian University 28. Yes. I chose the easiest option. Being fluent in Russian, I knew I’d easily pass the entrance exams. The fact that I had read so much Russian literature in Turkestan made my studying easier. I completed my studies in 1956 and immediately got a job at the [Jagiellonian University’s] Russian Philology Institute.

During my studies and even later, I lived a similar life to my parents before the war in Lwow. First, when I was studying, we had a classroom at Golebia Street, and the faculty where I worked after graduating was at Pilsudskiego [these streets are close to each other and close to Cracow’s Main Square]. And I’d walk downtown the normal way through the Square. Later, when I worked at the Collegium Paderevianum [the Jagiellonian University’s main philology building since 1964], my classes ended at roughly 1pm and instead of returning home, down Trzech Wieszczy Avenue, I went along Krupnicza. Then I would take Szewska to the Square, then Slawkowska to the Literacka café, and I knew that when I’d arrive there, at quarter or twenty past one, there’d be a table until half past two where my friends would be sitting. And they were. Marysia Buczynska among them. That was my early afternoon. Then I’d return home, my husband would return from the office, we’d have dinner. At first, my husband worked in an office at 51 or 52 Dluga, and then at 60 Grodzka. He was involved in all kinds of cases, both criminal and civil. In the evening, at seven or eight, we’d meet friends at the Europejska café or at Wierzynek [a restaurant in the Main Square]. Wierzynek was very fashionable in those days. That kind of life I led for a very long time, in fact for as long as I worked.

Soon after the war I met some of my friends from Lwow. I met a close girl friend of mine from high school, from the same class. She’s very sick now, here, in Cracow. She’s my only high school friend in Cracow, a person very close to me. Very, very close. She has changed her last name, and her first name too because [during the war] she lived on Aryan papers. She wasn’t my friend then, only a classmate. Her name was Adela. I don’t want to say any more, because I don’t know whether she would want it.

As far as my friends from my pre-war vacations in Skole are concerned, one who survived the war was Kubus Rosenbaum, whom I met in Frankfurt am Main. My husband’s cousin, who, as it turned out, knew Rosenbaum, also lived in Frankfurt. One day, in some conversation, my name was mentioned. The cousin told me later that Rosenbaum was very pleased to hear it, and said: ‘She was my friend from vacation.’ I don’t remember where he came from, but not from Lwow. And one time, when I went to visit that cousin, I met him – that was a surprise. Rosenbaum was married to a German girl, a pretty blonde. He died some eight or ten years ago. Another girl who lives in Frankfurt is Danuta Wilk. She is alive, but she is a vegetable, not a person. I met Jozef Grosskopf in 1957, when I visited Israel for the first time. He was an officer in the Israeli army. If I remember correctly, he spent the war in Russia. He told me he was in the escort that took Herzl’s 29 ashes from Vienna to Israel.

Rabbi Kahane from the Tempel I met twice after the war. He and his wife had been saved by Archbishop Szeptycki 30 [who hid them] in the vaults of the church of St. Yur [the Uniate cathedral church, called Lwow’s supreme church]. In fact, I have Rabbi Kahane’s account of this story somewhere, only it is in English, if I’m not mistaken, or in Hebrew, because I brought it back from Israel. In fact, Szeptycki also hid the daughter of Rabbi Jecheskiel Lewin, and I know that she survived too.

The first time I met Rabbi Kahane [after the war] was at the opening of the Auschwitz Museum [June 1947, opening of a permanent exhibition on the site of the former Auschwitz I camp, and thus of the Auschwitz-Birkenau Museum]. I was there with my husband. In fact, it was the first and last time I visited Auschwitz. Altars had been placed in front of the individual barracks, and priests of a dozen denominations were praying. When Kahane turned around, because he was standing with his back to the congregation, I suddenly recognized him and later approached him. We talked. The second and last time, I met him in 1957 in Israel. Each compatriot society 31 in Israel holds a hazkara [Heb.: commemoration] on the day of the destruction of the given community. It is a different date for each community. And while in Jerusalem I read in a Polish-language newspaper published there, which is called… [Nowiny Kurier; since 1992 the weekly Weekendowe Nowiny Kurier] that the Lwow hazkara was to be held the next day in Tel Aviv. I went, and when I entered the room, I suddenly heard exclamations: ‘It’s Janka!’, ‘It’s Janka!’ And I met my friends. He [Kahane] was leading the hazkara, praying. In fact, shortly after the war he had been the chief rabbi of the [communist] Polish Army, here in Poland. Then he left for Israel, and at the time when I was there, he was the rabbi of the Israeli air force. In Israel, yes. My teacher.

I can’t say how many times I’ve been to Israel. It wasn’t that often, but I simply never counted. I remember the first time, because it was the first time. It was 1957. Israel is a very beautiful country. Unfortunately, I couldn’t see everything because Jerusalem, for instance, was divided [ed. note. Jerusalem was divided ten years later, after the 1967 war]. But for me, it was above all a family trip. I wanted to meet my husband’s relatives. My husband’s brother, Juliusz, was a lawyer and public notary there. My husband’s two paternal uncles were still alive. Those uncles were living on state pensions, and they were very well-off people who had fled Germany before Hitler, or already under Hitler, at the beginning, and settled in Palestine long, long before the war. I don’t remember what their names were. They left large families, those uncles. One of my husband’s cousins, for instance, Aaron Wiener, is one of the few water management experts in the world. He designed the whole water management system in Israel.

And look, a blessing in disguise [the Hebrew classes at the Tarbut]. When I’m in Israel these days, when I arrive in Israel, after a few days I can understand what people say to me. I mean, I understand bits and pieces, but I’m not completely dumbstruck. I can still write my name [in Hebrew] today.

Our son, Jerzy, knew he was a Jew, but he wasn’t raised in any particularly religious way. To the extent that one time he asked his father: ‘Daddy, why did you marry such an ignoramus?’ So my husband asked him: ‘Why ignoramus?’ ‘Well, because mommy believes in God, so she’s an ignoramus.’ And there he received his first lesson in tolerance from his father: ‘Mom believes in God, I don’t, but look – we love each other and it isn’t a problem for us. And you will do as you like. When you grow up, you’ll understand, you’ll make a choice.’ My husband was a left-winger and had joined the PZPR 32. I never joined the party.

In 1967, Jerzy passed the entrance exams and was admitted to Cracow Polytechnic [now Cracow University of Technology], and then, two years later, he emigrated. To Sweden. He emigrated because of March [1968] [see Gomulka Campaign] 33. He had encountered no problems, but I simply realized that he could expect nothing here. Oh yes. There were very many of those youths, but those who there were, left. In fact, almost all of them. But I must say that I experienced no harassment whatsoever from the Jagiellonian University.

My initial reaction to March was one of incredulity. I couldn’t believe it even when I was seeing it with my very eyes… How did it go? ‘Zionists to Zion’? [One of the most popular propaganda slogans of the 1967-1968 anti-Semitic campaign in Poland.] I saw such banners. Yes, there were TV reports from various workers’ meetings, where those poor workers knew neither what the Zionists were nor what Siam was [the ignorance of the banners’ authors was such that the banners often read ‘Zionists to Siam’ – the words ‘Zion’ and ‘Siam’ are pronounced similarly in Polish]. Yes. So first there was incredulity, then anger, and finally indifference to everything that was happening here [in Poland].

If I go to Israel, I go there chiefly for family reasons, because very many of my husband’s relatives live there. And, of course, curiosity also, but I already visited all the interesting places when it was possible to do so. When it was still safe to do so. Otherwise, as far as the East is concerned, I want to visit neither the Middle East, nor the Far East, nor Africa. The only place I can go to is the Canary Islands, where I have been going for many years. Barring Israel and the Canaries, I took my last big trip in 1989. A year before my husband’s death we took a cruise through the Mediterranean Sea.

The history of my visits to Lwow starts with the fact that I didn’t want to go there at all. Really. I could have, but didn’t want to because I was afraid of it, but I dreamed about it, and all my friends who went there had the duty of photographing [for me] all those [family] houses and those various places in Lwow. And one time, it was 1980 or 1981, one of my colleagues went to Almatur [a student travel bureau] and it turned out they had five seats free on a bus trip for university students. And she booked those five seats. It was Monday, I had a class [with students] at the Collegium Paderevianum, she knocked on the door and said, ‘Janka, on Wednesday at 5am you’re going to Lwow.’ I got so agitated I had to dismiss the class. I couldn’t continue.

And so we went to Lwow. With a group of Theater Studies students. The first time I was there, I saw Lwow as a boorish place. That’s probably the best word for it. Simply boorish. I saw a poor, provincial city. Poor, impoverished, neglected, terrible. Cobbles dating back to Franz Joseph’s times. Besides, I was plagued by that peculiar smell, the smell that all Soviet cities have. Please don’t misunderstand me, I’m not a Russophobe, absolutely not, but their cities have this characteristic smell, when you enter a doorway or pass an open one. I don’t know whether it’s some disinfectant or something. Besides, when I looked into the doorways of the various houses in which my uncles or aunts had lived, remembering those beautiful, wonderful houses, the walls in all those doorways were painted to halfway up with this disgusting oil paint. And everything was completely run down, the whole downtown. That was my impression.

All the time I felt like a stranger. I didn’t feel it was my city, but one day, with one of my friends, we went to the High Castle. It was winter, and there, at the High Castle, with that beautiful white snow, something started to awaken, something closer… And then we’re walking down that High Castle, walking on foot, down Kurkowa Street [now Lysenko], which is rather steep – in fact, all streets in Lwow run either up or down. We’re walking and down there I see the building of the pre-war Karol Szajnocha high school. This is the high school that Stanislaw Lem commemorated in his ‘High Castle’ [1966; biographical novel on the writer’s childhood in Lwow]. And at that moment, when, walking down that snow-covered Kurkowa Street, I saw that high school building, it was the only moment when I lost my sense of reality. I thought: God, I’m in Lwow! I’m in Lwow!

And suddenly I’m trying to recall the image of Cracow, that, you know, I’m from Cracow… I’m only visiting this place. The reality is: I’m only visiting this place. I’m not here, I’m only visiting. And I’m trying to get this image of Cracow… and I can’t. I can’t focus my concentration enough to recall anything from there. And finally I saw the green-painted door of the house where I live in Cracow. It was the only image my memory managed to recall. Cracow was an empty sound, a name that signified nothing. It was that one and only moment, which lasted… I don’t know. A minute, two? Other than that, I knew all the time it wasn’t my city. And after that visit I completely lost the sense of longing for Lwow, it drifted away somewhere. Today, when I’m in Sweden [since 1991, Mrs. Wiener has been spending a couple of months each year in Sweden] or am traveling the world, I long only for Cracow. What makes you love a city are its people. Not the buildings. Only the people, and I knew that there were no doors that would open before me there. This is something that has finally ended, but it ended when I actually went to Lwow.

I kept telling myself that I wouldn’t go there [to her parents’ apartment] at all. I was walking around Lwow with those friends of mine, showing them the various historical buildings, churches, museums. Only one of them knew Lwow, but not as well as I did. And on the last-but-one day of our stay we were at the Sobieski Museum on the Main Square and at some point, looking at the various exhibits, I suddenly realized that on the next day I’d be leaving and would not have been there. And I said to them: ‘Listen, we’ll meet at the hotel.’ I left them and dashed off alone.

And then I went there for the first time. I knew that the house which we had lived in before the war had had the front, stairs, and interior design altered because during the war it had taken a direct shell hit. I approached, the front door was closed. The completely changed facade, the little balconies where they hadn’t been before… But the other house, where Grandfather had lived, was precisely as I remembered it… I will only look at the yard [I thought]. And I entered. The sycamores weren’t there, someone must have found them a nuisance. Wooden stairs led inside, which before the war had been regularly polished, covered always with a red carpet, I saw the golden hooks that used to hold it, still in place. The banister, also wooden, ending, like everything in Lwow, with a lion’s head. The lion’s head wasn’t there anymore, only a round knob. So many years, everything had changed. I put my hand on the knob and I don’t know, don’t remember the moment when I found myself on the first floor pressing the doorbell to my grandparents’ apartment. Those few seconds were simply lost. I don’t remember going up those stairs. In any case, I was woken up by the shrill sound of the doorbell. And then the door opens and a petite lady is standing in front of me, completely grey-haired. It was winter, February. Those Bulgarian sheepskin coats were in fashion then. I stood in that coat, a very nice one, brown, with a hood and white finish. It was clear I wasn’t from there, that I was a foreigner. She looks at me inquiringly.

‘I lived here before the war,’ I said, in Russian. I was a senior lecturer in Russian philology then. She says: ‘Come on in,’ and lets me into the hall, which is tiny and divided, and I remember that it was very large, taking a turn at one point like the letter L. The door ahead, to Grandfather’s former living room, was in place. I always remembered those rooms as very large, very high. And when I now found myself in that apartment, I was surprised to see they weren’t that very large or high at all. They were large, but not as huge as I remembered. I enter, some tall man is standing there, and my ears are all clogged up, as if I had plugged them with cotton wool – I didn’t hear what he said, only her reply: ‘She says she used to live here.’ The man helps me with my coat: sit down, please, and tells his wife to bring something to drink. She brought cognac, he poured it into a glass and says: drink, please. When I drank it, I, so to say… came to. And I say excuse me, but it wasn’t me who lived here, but my grandfather. He asks me: what was his name? Jakub Singer, I say. And I’m sitting facing the windows, and there used to be two windows there, and between them the balcony door. And I see only one window and the balcony door, and yet I remember two windows, for God’s sake, and I either said something to that effect or he saw my gaze fixed on those windows, and he goes: yes, yes, you aren’t wrong, this apartment was very large, it has been divided into three separate apartments. We moved a wall to make the other room larger. Our son lives there. And he asks me whether I want to see that part? No, I say, I don’t.

I don’t remember their name, but he told me he had been a doctor, head of a Russian military hospital. Before the war, at 39 [Skarbkowska Street], there stood a business college, I don’t remember what it was called, but a business college. On seizing Lwow in 1944 [27th July], the Russians set up a hospital there, and he sequestered the apartment next door for himself. My grandparents weren’t there, of course, because they were dead. A Polish family lived there named Sliwinski, and it was from them they sequestered a part of the apartment. Where did they [the doctor’s family] come from? What happened to that hospital?… It was probably wound up, and he retired. I don’t know. I wasn’t interested in that. He didn’t go into specifics about it, but he told me that I must have been aware of what had happened to the Lwow Jews. And he asked me whether I remembered the janitor. I said I remembered him very well, his name was Jodlowski, and he was a janitor in both of those two houses. And he says, ‘You know, I’m intrigued by the fact that his daughter went to college, and there were fees to pay…’ Yes, you know, my grandfather, the greedy capitalist, paid for that talented girl’s, the janitor’s daughter’s Ukrainian college. He told me then that Marysia had been arrested by the NKVD 34 for membership of the UPA [Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists] 35, and the whole Jodlowski family had been deported. I didn’t learn anything more. Besides, none of the [former] non-Jewish tenants were there, they had all repatriated to Poland. Where, what, how? I don’t know. I didn’t happen upon any trace of them.

We had gone to Lwow by bus, a brand-new university coach. When we were on our way back and we crossed the border, when we rode into Przemysl [some 15 km from the Ukrainian-Polish border], I felt like I was in Paris, and when we rode into Rzeszow [some 100 km from the Ukrainian-Polish border], I thought I was in New York. After Lwow.

I retired two years past my retirement age 60, i.e. in 1984, but I could have kept on working. I have very good memories of my professional career. Very nice. And, more importantly, my students do, too. My students are everywhere, they’re here, they’re in the West.

Since mid-January 1991 I have been living part of the year here, part of the year in Sweden. In December 1990 my husband died suddenly. My son had been urging us to move to Sweden even before that. Both me and my husband had already secured permanent stay permits. I’ve been here [in Cracow] for four months now, and soon I’m going to Sweden for two months, to Lund.

My son got married in Sweden, works as a dental surgeon and lives in Lund [a university town of approx. 100,000 some 10 km from Malmö]. He has two sons. They’re called Jerry and Edward, but we all call him Tedi. Tedi has just been admitted to a teacher training college but I don’t know whether he won’t change his mind, because he first wanted to be a pilot, then a sailor, and his interests aren’t really specified. Tedi understands a lot of Polish, but doesn’t speak it so well.

Jerry speaks Polish and is 35 today. He is a businessman and runs his own company. He has just… What day do we have today? Wednesday? Jerry was here Friday, Saturday, Sunday. Here in Cracow. He came with his colleagues. Jerry has a child, but no wife. My great-granddaughter is called Natalie and is 15 years old. They live together near Lund, in Steffanstorp.

My German has gradually been effaced by Swedish. Just as Russian earlier superseded my Ukrainian. I used to be fluent in German, and now, when me and a friend of mine were in Frankfurt last time, and I was buying something in a shop, at one point she gives me a nudge. I look at her, and she says, ‘You said the first sentence in German, but now you’re speaking Swedish.’

In 1991, it turned out that the son of Joachim, my grandmother Charlota’s brother, survived, lives in London, and is a university professor emeritus. First I read in ‘Tygodnik Powszechny’ [Catholic socio-cultural weekly published since 1945] that the Jurzykowski award [the award of the New York-based Alfred Jurzykowski Foundation for Polish artists and scientists] had gone to Professor Henryk Urich. I wasn’t sure it was the same Urich, but I wrote him a letter. In the letter, I stated a few facts that no one from outside the family could have known. Such as that his father was nicknamed Bolo, and his brother, Franciszek – Franz. He immediately wrote me back. He had no family, a childless bachelor. We started exchanging letters. Not very often, but, unfortunately, it so happened that his letter announcing his visit to Cracow arrived when I was away in Sweden. And we didn’t meet. I later called him and that has been it so far.

My cousin Niuka died three years ago in Stockholm. She visited me twice, I think, in Cracow, but when she was visiting Poland, it was usually Warsaw, because that’s where she had lived before settling in Sweden. She got married and took her husband’s surname, Sznap. Her son lives in Stockholm, has three kids. Her daughter has one son.

I am religious. Unlike my husband, who was an agnostic, I am deeply religious. There is no tradition at my home, but there’s this one prayer, called Kol Nidre [prayer recited in the synagogue at the beginning of the evening service on the Day of Atonement] and my son then has to take me to Malmö, because that day, that evening, I want to spend praying in the synagogue. That is mine… I believe that… not so much talk, because you can’t talk with God, but pray to God, or ask him for something, or speak to him – that you can do on your own, without intermediaries.

Three years ago my son gave me a surprise present – a trip to Lwow as a gift for my 80th birthday. I was told only a few days before departure. Everyone in Lund knew but no one had said a word. And everything was arranged perfectly. I went with my son and his wife. We spent three full days there, not counting the flight day. We went by plane, and returned by plane. And those three days were completely like a dream. But it wasn’t like during the first visit because, with my son at my one side and my daughter-in-law at the other, all my sensations, my feelings were somehow different. It was no longer me alone in confrontation with my memories, this time I was with my family.

Of course, we went to those houses, because my son wanted to see his roots. We entered my grandfather’s house, we’re walking up the stairs, and some young man of about 30 passes us and asks – because it’s clear again that we’re foreigners – to whom? My son tells him that his grandparents lived there, that we just want to look around, and the man says, ‘Yes, yes. I know about this. One heiress from Cracow has already been here.’ And my son says, ‘This is the lady from Cracow. We’re from Cracow.’ I don’t remember how that young man reacted to the ‘heiress,’ but he told us that the doctor and his wife had died, and now he had a studio there, because he was a painter. He led us into the apartment, not through the main door but through the porch to the kitchen. And when we were standing in the kitchen, my son asks me, ‘Mama, do you remember?’ And I say, ‘Yes, I remember everything, only, you know, this kitchen looked different, there was a huge tiled stove here with a top plate, and it’s gone. A gas cooker stood in that place. And the door from the kitchen,’ I went on –it was closed – ‘led to the dining room, and on the right when you entered, that was a closet in the wall, wallpapered, with an iron door, and on the lower shelf there always stood tins of cookies.’ And the painter said that the door was gone, but the closet was still there, and so were the shelves. He opened the door, we entered, and indeed, and I looked and saw that the shelf was really low, and I remembered that I had had to stand on my toes to reach for those boxes – the memories of a little girl! A two, three-year-old one.

That visit three years ago with my son and daughter-in-law was a completely different story. It was like when you go as a tourist to visit Florence or some other beautiful city. My son was enthusiastic. He said he hadn’t imagined it was such a beautiful city. And now, when I picture [the old] Lwow in my mind, I see a smiling, beautiful, joyous city, beautifully illuminated in the night. When it rained, the wet sidewalks reflected the illuminated shop windows of the high streets, with elegant stores, well-dressed, smiling, pleasant people, because it was a unique city and the people were unique too. Pleasant to each other. Please show me another city where people on the streets smile at each other. Such a city it was, but it’s gone now.

Glossary

1 Tarbut

Zionist educational organization. Founded in the Soviet Union in 1917, it was soon dissolved by the Soviet authorities. It continued its activity in Central and Eastern European countries; in Poland from 1922. The language of instruction in Tarbut schools was Hebrew; the curriculum included biblical and contemporary Hebrew literature, sciences, Polish, and technical and vocational subjects.

2 Poland’s independence, 1918

In 1918 Poland regained its independence after over 100 years under the partitions, when it was divided up between Russia, Austria and Prussia. World War I ended with the defeat of all three partitioning powers, which made the liberation of Poland possible. On 8 January 1918 the president of the USA, Woodrow Wilson, declaimed his 14 points, the 13th of which dealt with Poland’s independence. In the spring of the same year, the Triple Entente was in secret negotiations with Austria-Hungary, offering them integrity and some of Poland in exchange for parting company with their German ally, but the talks were a fiasco and in June the Entente reverted to its original demands of full independence for Poland. In the face of the defeat of the Central Powers, on 7 October 1918 the Regency Council issued a statement to the Polish nation proclaiming its independence and the reunion of Poland. Institutions representing the Polish nation on the international arena began to spring up, as did units disarming the partitioning powers’ armed forces and others organizing a system of authority for the needs of the future state. In the night of 6-7 November 1918, in Lublin, a Provisional Government of the Republic of Poland was formed under Ignacy Daszynski. Its core comprised supporters of Pilsudski. On 11 November 1918 the armistice was signed on the western front, and the Regency Council entrusted Pilsudski with the supreme command of the nascent army. On 14 November the Regency Council dissolved, handing all civilian power to Pilsudski; the Lublin government also submitted to his rule. On 17 November Pilsudski appointed a government, which on 21 November issued a manifesto promising agricultural reforms and the nationalization of certain branches of industry. It also introduced labor legislation that strongly favored the workers, and announced parliamentary elections. On 22 November Pilsudski announced himself Head of State and signed a decree on the provisional authorities in the Republic of Poland. The revolutionary left, from December 1918 united in the Communist Workers’ Party of Poland, came out against the government and independence, but the program of Pilsudski’s government satisfied the expectations of the majority of society and emboldened it to fight for its goals within the parliamentary democracy of the independent Polish state. In January and June 1919 the first elections to the Legislative Sejm were held. On 20 February 1919 the Legislative Sejm passed the ‘small constitution’; Pilsudski remained Head of State. The first stage of establishing statehood was completed, despite the fact that the issue of Poland’s borders had not yet been resolved.

3 Battle for Lwow, 1918

in the night of 31st October-1st November 1918, a Ukrainian detachment (previously operating within the Austro-Hungarian army) under Dymytr Vitovsky occupied all the key buildings in Lwow, so taking control of the city. Early in the morning of 1st November, fighting against the Poles began. After a few days of fierce combat, in which civilians, including Polish schoolchildren and scouts, took a major part, a frontline established itself: the western part of the city was in Polish hands, the eastern part under Ukrainian control. Relief was dispatched from Cracow. On 20th November a detachment of the Polish Army under Michal Karaszewicz-Tokarzewski entered the city, and after a day’s fighting, the Ukrainians were forced out of the city. The defense of Lwow, and in particular the very young participants of the battle, known as the ‘Young Eagles,’ were the object of a major cult in the Second Polish Republic [Poland between the world wars].

4 Franz Joseph I von Habsburg (1830-1916)

emperor of Austria from 1848, king of Hungary from 1867. In 1948 he suppressed a revolution in Austria (the ‘Springtime of the Peoples’), whereupon he abolished the constitution and political concessions. His foreign policy defeats – the loss of Italy in 1859, loss of influences in the German lands, separatism in Hungary, defeat in war against the Prussians in 1866 – and the dire condition of the state finances convinced him that reforms were vital. In 1867 the country was reformed as a federation of two states: the Austrian empire and the Hungarian kingdom, united by a personal union in the person of Franz Joseph. A constitutional parliamentary system was also adopted, which guaranteed the various countries within the state (including Galicia, an area now largely in southern Poland) a considerable measure of internal autonomy. In the area of foreign policy, Franz Joseph united Austria-Hungary with Germany by a treaty signed in 1892, which became the basis for the Triple Alliance. The conflict in Bosnia-Herzegovina was the spark that ignited World War I. Subsequent generations remembered the second part of Franz Joseph’s rule as a period of stabilization and prosperity.

5 Galicia

Informal name for the lands of the former Polish Republic under Habsburg rule (1772–1918), derived from the official name bestowed on these lands by Austria: the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. From 1815 the lands west of the river San (including Krakow) began by common consent to be called Western Galicia, and the remaining part (including Lemberg), with its dominant Ukrainian population Eastern Galicia. Galicia was agricultural territory, an economically backward region. Its villages were poor and overcrowded (hence the term ‘Galician misery’), which, given the low level of industrial development (on the whole processing of agricultural and crude-oil based products) prompted mass economic emigration from the 1890s; mainly to the Americas. After 1918 the name Eastern Malopolska for Eastern Galicia was popularized in Poland, but Ukrainians called it Western Ukraine.

6 KuK (Kaiserlich und Koeniglich) army

The name ‘Imperial and Royal’ was used for the army of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as well as for other state institutions of the Monarchy originated from the dual political system. Following the Compromise of 1867, which established the Dual Monarchy, Austrian emperor and Hungarian King Franz Joseph was the head of the state and also commander-in-chief of the army. Hence the name ‘Imperial and Royal’.

7 Russian Revolution of 1917

Revolution in which the tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Empire and, under Lenin, was replaced by the Bolshevik rule. The two phases of the Revolution were: February Revolution, which came about due to food and fuel shortages during World War I, and during which the tsar abdicated and a provisional government took over. The second phase took place in the form of a coup led by Lenin in October/November (October Revolution) and saw the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

8 Polish Legions

a military formation operating in the period 1914-17, formally subordinate to the Austro-Hungarian army but fighting for Polish independence. Commanded by Jozef Pilsudski. From 1915 the Legions came under German command, but some of the Legionnaires refused, which led to the collapse of the organization.

9 Chwila [the Moment]

a Jewish daily political, social and cultural affairs paper with a Zionist accent, published in 1919-1939 in Lwow, in Polish. From 1931 the editor-in-chief was Henryk Hescheles. Chwila also published the important Dodatek Naukowo-Literacki [Academic and Literary Supplement], with contributors including the historians Majer Balaban and Mojzesz Schorr, the literary critics Maksymilian Biebenstock and Artur Sandauer, the writers Bernard Singer and Julian Stryjkowski, the politicians Ignacy Schwarzbart and Emil Sommerstein, and many others.

10 Hemar, Marian (1901-1972), real name Jan Marian Hescheles

Polish satirist of Jewish descent. Studied medicine and philosophy in Lwow, but abandoned his degree course in favor of literature. From 1920 wrote for satirical cabaret acts and revue, and was a contributor to Szczutek [Flick, a satirical publication] and Gazeta Lwowska [the Lwow Newspaper]. In 1925 he moved to Warsaw. He was linked to the literary group Skamandra. He wrote plays, political cameos, vaudeville, satirical cabaret sketches, political poems, columns, and above all songs, of which he penned over 3,000, many of them hits. He was the literary director of the famous pre-war Warsaw cabarets Qui pro Quo, Banda [the Gang], Cyganeria Warszawska [Warsaw Bohemia] and Cyrulik Warszawski [the Barber of Warsaw]. He spent the war in emigration. He managed to get to Egypt and fought with the Carpathian Brigade at Tobruk. He also wrote the Brigade’s hymn. From 1943 in England. He cooperated with the émigré press and Radio Free Europe. He also founded the Bialy Orzel [White Eagle] satirical cabaret group, and in 1955 the Teatr Hemara [Hemar Theater]. He is also the author of some excellent translations of sonnets by Shakespeare and Horace.

11 Hasmonea Lwow

Jewish sports club founded in 1908 by Adolf Kohn. One of four Lwow league clubs in the interwar period. For two seasons its soccer section played in the league, coming 11th in 1927 and 13th in 1928. The club also boasted a strong boxing section (H. Grosz and F. Strauss were vice-champions) and table tennis section (A. Erlich). The athlete Irena Bella Hornstein of Hasmonea competed for Poland in 1937-1939.

12 Pilsudski, Jozef (1867-1935)

Polish activist in the independence cause, politician, statesman, marshal. With regard to the cause of Polish independence he represented the pro-Austrian current, which believed that the Polish state would be reconstructed with the assistance of Austria-Hungary. When Poland regained its independence in January 1919, he was elected Head of State by the Legislative Sejm. In March 1920 he was nominated marshal, and until December 1922 he held the positions of Head of State and Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army. After the murder of the president, Gabriel Narutowicz, he resigned from all his posts and withdrew from politics. He returned in 1926 in a political coup. He refused the presidency offered to him, and in the new government held the posts of war minister and general inspector of the armed forces. He was prime minister twice, from 1926-1928, and in 1930. He worked to create a system of national security by concluding bilateral non-aggression pacts with the USSR (1932) and Germany (1934). He sought opportunities to conclude firm alliances with France and Britain. In 1932 owing to his deteriorating health, Pilsudski resigned from his functions. He was buried in the Crypt of Honor in Wawel Cathedral in the Royal Castle in Cracow.

13 Maccabi World Union

International Jewish sports organization whose origins go back to the end of the 19th century. A growing number of young Eastern European Jews involved in Zionism felt that one essential prerequisite of the establishment of a national home in Palestine was the improvement of the physical condition and training of ghetto youth. In order to achieve this, gymnastics clubs were founded in many Eastern and Central European countries, which later came to be called Maccabi. The movement soon spread to more countries in Europe and to Palestine. The World Maccabi Union was formed in 1921. In less than two decades its membership was estimated at 200,000 with branches located in most countries of Europe and in Palestine, Australia, South America, South Africa, etc.

14 Anti-Semitism in Poland in the 1930s

From 1935-39 the activities of Polish anti-Semitic propaganda intensified. The Sejm introduced barriers to ritual slaughter, restrictions of Jews’ access to education and certain professions. Nationalistic factions postulated the removal of Jews from political, social and cultural life, and agitated for economic boycotts to persuade all the country’s Jews to emigrate. Nationalist activists took up posts outside Jewish shops and stalls, attempting to prevent Poles from patronizing them. Such campaigns were often combined with damage and looting of shops and beatings, sometimes with fatal consequences. From June 1935 until 1937 there were over a dozen pogroms, the most publicized of which was the pogrom in Przytyk in 1936. The Catholic Church also contributed to the rise of anti-Semitism.

15 3rd May Constitution

Constitutional treaty from 1791, adopted during the Four-Year Sejm by the patriotic party as a result of a compromise with the royalist party. The constitution was an attempt to redress the internal relations in Poland after the first partition (1772). It created the foundations for the structure of modern Poland as a constitutional monarchy. In the first article the constitution guaranteed freedom of conscience and religion, although Catholicism remained the dominant religion. Members of other religions were assured ‘governmental protection.’ The constitution instituted the division of power, restricted the privileges of the nobility, granted far-ranging rights to townspeople and assured governmental protection to peasants. Four years later, in 1795, Poland finally lost its independence and was fully divided up between its three powerful neighbors: Russia, Prussia and Austria.

16 Ehrenburg, Ilya Grigoryevich (1891-1967)

Famous Russian Jewish novelist, poet and journalist who spent his early years in France. His first important novel, The Extraordinary Adventures of Julio Jurenito (1922), is a satire on modern European civilization. His other novels include The Thaw (1955), a forthright piece about Stalin’s regime which gave its name to the period of relaxation of censorship after Stalin’s death.

17 Kahane, Dawid (1903-1998)

rabbi of the Lwow community. Educated in religious schools in Berlin, Wroclaw and Vienna. After his return to Poland he taught religious studies in schools in Lwow, subsequently became rabbi in Tykocin, and from 1929 was a rabbi in Lwow, at the synagogue on Sykstuska Street. He was also head of the Tanach study institute that functioned as part of the Jewish Religious Community. During the occupation he remained a member of the rabbinate and was also a member of Lwow’s Judenrat. After escaping from the Janowska Street camp in Lwow he survived in hiding thanks to the assistance of the Greek Catholic metropolitan archbishop of Lwow, Andriy Szeptycki. In 1945, after his return to Poland, he became chief rabbi in the Polish Army. He was also chairman of the Executive Committee of the Supreme Religious Council within the Jewish Religious Congregations’ Organizational Committee in Poland, as the Mizrachi representative. In 1949 he emigrated to Israel. In 1967-1975 he was chief rabbi of Argentina. Thereafter he returned to Israel, and lived in Tel Aviv until his death. He published his memoirs in Hebrew, Diary from the Lwow Ghetto and After the Flood.

18 Lwow Jewish district

Jewish settlements in Lwow date back to the 14th century. At first the Jews lived on the streets later called Zolkiewska and Krakowskie Przedmiescie. In 1350 there was a huge fire, which destroyed the city. It was rebuilt outside its previous boundaries. Thereafter, the Jews settled in the southeastern part of the new city, where a Zydowska [Jewish] Street came into being (from 1871 Blacharska Street). However, some of the Jews remained in the original district, hence the genesis of two separate Jewish religious communities in Lwow: the downtown one and that on Krakowskie Przedmiescie. In 1582 the first synagogue in the downtown community was built, the Golden Rose Synagogue, at 27 Blacharska Street. The oldest of the suburban synagogues dates from ca. 1624. The downtown Jewish district grew in time to extend beyond Blacharska into Wekslarska (later Boimow), Serbska and Ruska. In 1795 the Austrian authorities imposed a ban on Jews living on other streets. This ban was officially lifted in 1868.

19 Lem, Stanislaw (b

1921): writer and essayist, author of science fiction novels. Debuted in 1946 with the novel ‘Man from Mars,’ some lyric poems, popular science articles, and short adventure and war stories. Following the publication of his contemporary novel ‘Time Saved’ (originally ‘Hospital of the Transfiguration’), which was heavily censored, Lem devoted himself to science fiction. He was a pioneer in this genre, and his works quickly became classics. His science fiction novels also address the issue of the consequences of civil and scientific progress (‘Solaris,’ ‘The Futurological Congress,’ ‘Fiasco’); while some contain parodies of and grotesque twists on the sci-fi theme (‘The Book of Robots’). Another group of works are collections of fictional reviews and introductions to non-existent books (‘A Perfect Vacuum’). In his essays, Lem describes the impact of technological progress on the evolution of human philosophy. His most famous essay is Summa Technologiae. Lem’s works have been translated into several languages, and have also been adapted for the screen.

20 Workers’ demonstrations in Lwow in 1936

On 14th April 1936 a demonstration of the unemployed was attacked by the police. A skirmish ensued, in which a Ukrainian by the name of Kozak was killed. The police attack provoked a huge strike, and Kozak’s funeral, on 16th April, served as the forum for a demonstration with the participation of thousands of workers. The police attempted to scatter the demonstrators using live ammunition. The crowd responded with stones, and in several places barricades were erected and street fighting broke out. 31 workers died, and some 300 were injured. The events in Lwow coincided with similar unrest in Cracow and Czestochowa.

21 Murders of Jewish students in Lwow 1938-1939

in 1937 a resolution by the rector enforced the ‘bench ghetto’ at the Jan Kazimierz University in Lwow. Jewish students refused to comply with the rule, and some Polish students supported them. Nationalist hit squads attempted to execute the ghetto rule by force, making Jews sit in the allocated places. On 24th November 1938 some Jewish pharmacology students were knifed. Two of them, Karol Zellermayer and Samuel Proweller, died from their wounds. A police investigation found that the attackers were members of an ND hit squad, and some of them were arrested. Zellermayer’s funeral grew into a demonstration against violence at the University, attended by Jews, members of a range of social organizations, students, and some of the teaching staff, including the rector. On 24th May 1939 another Jew, a freshman called Markus Landsberg, was killed during unrest at the Lwow Polytechnic. The Polytechnic’s Senate called on student organizations to condemn the crime; 18 refused to do so. 16 lecturers published a memorandum to the prime minister demanding that the authorities take steps to quash destructive elements among the student population.

22 German occupation of Czechoslovakia

On 14th March 1939 Slovakia proclaimed its independence, i.e. its breakaway from Czechoslovakia. The next day, German troops marched into the Czech Republic. Hitler forced the Czech president, Emil Hacha to sign a declaration announcing the creation of the Protectorate of Bohemia-Moravia, a Czech state entirely under German control.

23 Anschluss

The annexation of Austria to Germany. The 1919 peace treaty of St. Germain prohibited the Anschluss, to prevent a resurgence of a strong Germany. On 12th March 1938 Hitler occupied Austria, and, to popular approval, annexed it as the province of Ostmark. In April 1945 Austria regained independence, legalizing it with the Austrian State Treaty in 1955.

24 September Campaign 1939

armed struggle in defense of Poland’s independence from 1st September to 6th October 1939 against German and, from 17 September, also Soviet aggression; the start of World War II. The German plan of aggression (‘Fall Weiss’) assumed all-out, lightning warfare (Blitzkrieg). The Polish plan of defense planned engagement of battle in the border region (a length of some 1,600 km), and then organization of resistance further inside the country along subsequent lines of defense (chiefly along the Narwa, Vistula and San) until an allied (French and British) offensive on the western front. Poland’s armed forces, commanded by the Supreme Commander, Marshal Edward Rydz-Smigly, numbered some 1 m soldiers. Poland defended itself in isolation; on 3rd September Britain and France declared war on Germany, yet did not undertake offensive action on a larger scale. Following a battle on the border the main Polish line of defense was broken, and the Polish forces retreated in battles on the Vistula and the San. On 8th September, the German army reached Warsaw, and on 12th September Lwow. From 14-16 September the Germans closed their ring on the Bug. On 9th September Polish divisions commanded by General Tadeusz Kutrzeba went into battle with the Germans on the Bzura, but after initial successes were surrounded and largely smashed (by 22 September), although some of the troops managed to get to Warsaw. Defense was continued by isolated centers of resistance, where the civilian population cooperated with the army in defense. On 17th September Soviet forces numbering more than 800,000 men crossed Poland’s eastern border, broke through the defense of the Polish forces and advanced nearly as far as the Narwa-Bug-Vistula-San line. In the night of 17-18 September the president of Poland, the government and the Supreme Commander crossed the Polish-Romanian border and were interned. Lwow capitulated on 22nd September (surrendered to Soviet units), Warsaw on 28th September, Modlin on 29th September, and Hel on 2nd October.

25 Flight eastwards, 1939

From the moment of the German attack on Poland on 1st September 1939, Poles began to flee from areas in immediate danger of invasion to the eastern territories, which gave the impression of being safer. When in the wake of the Soviet aggression (17th September) Poland was divided into Soviet and German-occupied zones, hundreds of thousands of refugees from central and western Poland found themselves in the Soviet zone, and more continued to arrive, often waiting weeks for permits to cross the border. The majority of those fleeing the German occupation were Jews. The status of the refugees was different to that of locals: they were treated as dubious elements. During the passport campaign (the issue of passports, i.e. ID, to the new USSR – formerly Polish – citizens) of spring 1940, refugees were issued with documents bearing the proviso that they were prohibited from settling within 100 km of the border. At the end of June 1940 the Soviet authorities launched a vast deportation campaign, during which 82,000 refugees were transported deep into the Soviet Union, mainly to the Novosibirsk and Archangelsk districts. 84% of those deported in that campaign were Jews, and 11% Poles. The deportees were subjected to harsh physical labor. Paradoxically, for the Jews exile proved their salvation: a year later, when the western border areas were occupied by the Germans, those Jews who had managed to stay put perished in the Holocaust.

26 Evacuation of Poles from the USSR

From 1939-41 there were some 2 million citizens of the Second Polish Republic from lands annexed to the Soviet Union in the heart of the USSR (Poles, Jews, Ukrainians, Belarusians and Lithuanians). The resettlement of Poles and Jews to Poland (within its new borders) began in 1944. The process was coordinated by a political organization subordinate to the Soviet authorities, the Union of Polish Patriots (operated until July 1946). The main purpose of the resettlement was to purge Polish lands annexed into the Soviet Union during World War II of their ethnic Polish population. The campaign was accompanied by the removal of Ukrainian and Belarusian populations to the USSR. Between 1944 and 1948 some 1.5 million Poles and Jews returned to Poland with military units or under the repatriation program.

27 Anders’ Army

The Polish Armed Forces in the USSR, subsequently the Polish Army in the East, known as Anders’ Army: an operations unit of the Polish Armed Forces formed pursuant to the Polish-Soviet Pact of 30 July 1941 and the military agreement of 14 July 1941. It comprised Polish citizens who had been deported into the heart of the USSR: soldiers imprisoned in 1939-41 and civilians amnestied in 1941 (some 1.25-1.6m people, including a recruitment base of 100,000-150,000). The commander-in-chief of the Polish Armed Forces in the USSR was General Wladyslaw Anders. The army never reached its full quota (in February 1942 it numbered 48,000, and in March 1942 around 66,000). In terms of operations it was answerable to the Supreme Command of the Red Army, and in terms of organization and personnel to the Supreme Commander, General Wladyslaw Sikorski and the Polish government in exile. In March-April 1942 part of the Army (with Stalin’s consent) was sent to Iran (33,000 soldiers and approx. 10,000 civilians). The final evacuation took place in August-September 1942 pursuant to Soviet-British agreements concluded in July 1942 (it was the aim of General Anders and the British powers to withdraw Polish forces from the USSR); some 114,000 people, including 25,000 civilians (over 13,000 children) left the Soviet Union. The units that had been evacuated were merged with the Polish Army in the Middle East to form the Polish Army in the East, commanded by Anders.

28 Jagiellonian University

In Polish ‘Uniwersytet Jagiellonski’, it is the university of Cracow, founded in 1364 by Casimir III of Poland and maintained high level learning ever since. In the 19th century the university was named Jagiellonian to commemorate the dynasty of Polish kings. (Source http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagellonian_University)

29 Herzl, Theodor (1860-1904)

Jewish journalist and writer, the founder of modern political Zionism. Born in Budapest, Hungary, Herzl settled in Vienna, Austria, where he received legal education. However, he devoted himself to journalism and literature. He was a correspondent for the Neue Freie Presse in Paris between 1891-1895, and in his articles he closely followed French society and politics at the time of the Dreyfuss affair. It was this court case which made him interested in his Jewishness and in the fate of Jews. Beginning in 1896, when the English translation of his Judenstaat (The Jewish State) appeared, his career and reputation changed. He became the founder and one of the most indefatigable promoters of modern political Zionism. In addition to his literary activity for the cause of Zionism, he traveled all over Europe to meet and negotiate with politicians, public figures and monarchs. He set up the first Zionist world congress and was active in organizing several subsequent ones.

30 Sheptytsky, Andriy (1865-1944)

real name Szeptycki Roman Aleksander, monastic name Andriy; monk in the Congregation of St. Basil, Greek-Catholic archbishop of Lwow, and metropolitan archbishop of Halitz from 1900, active ecumenist. 1901-1914 deputy to the Galician National Diet, 1903-1914 member of the Austrian House of Lords. Active in the Ukrainian nationalist and independence movement, in particular a supporter of the Ukrainian National Democratic Union. Spoke out in defense of Ukrainian rights on many occasions, though rejected the use of terror as a means to political struggle. During World War II he supported the collaboration of Ukrainian nationalists with the Germans and assisted in the creation of a Ukrainian division of the SS. Nevertheless, in letters to Rome he enumerated German crimes, and in November 1942 he published a pastoral letter entitled “Thou shalt not kill,” in which some see condemnation of the murder of the Jews and a warning to Ukrainians not to collaborate in it. Thanks to his help, some 150 Jews found shelter in Uniate monasteries and in his own residence. He also sought to bring an end to Polish-Ukrainian fighting in Volhynia and Galicia.

31 Compatriot societies (Yiddish

landsmanshaftn): émigré organizations for people from specific towns or regions. They serve a mutual aid and social purpose, and often also work to assist their fellow compatriots still in their original country in emigrating. The first Jewish compatriot societies were founded in the 19th century in USA émigré circles centered on synagogues. Gradually they took on secular form. In the interwar years compatriot societies sprang up in Latin America and Palestine. In the 1930s they offered redoubled aid to those of their compatriots who wished to emigrate, using instruments such as group visas to the US and Palestine. After World War II and the reception of the wave of Holocaust survivors, one of the compatriot societies’ key areas of activity was documenting the history of Jewish towns, one form of which is the publication of books of remembrance (yizkor bukh, sefer yizkor). Another type of compatriot society emerged in the Polish ghettos during the occupation: these were mutual aid organizations created by those who had been resettled from other towns. After the war compatriot societies were created to provide assistance in searching for relatives in Poland and abroad, and to rebuild the shattered Jewish communities of particular towns.

32 Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR)

communist party formed in Poland in December 1948 by the fusion of the PPR (Polish Workers’ Party) and the PPS (Polish Socialist Party). Until 1989 it was the only party in the country; it held power, but was subordinate to the Soviet Union. After losing the elections in June 1989 it lost its monopoly. On 29th January 1990 the party was dissolved.

33 Gomulka Campaign

a campaign to sack Jews employed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the army and the central administration. The trigger of this anti-Semitic campaign was the involvement of the Socialist Bloc countries on the Arab side in the Middle East conflict, in connection with which Moscow ordered purges in state institutions. On 19th June 1967, at a trade union congress, the then First Secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party [PZPR], Wladyslaw Gomulka, accused the Jews of lack of loyalty to the state and of publicly demonstrating their enthusiasm for Israel’s victory in the Six-Day-War. This marked the start of purges among journalists and people of other creative professions. Poland also severed diplomatic relations with Israel. On 8th March 1968 there was a protest at Warsaw University. The Ministry of Internal Affairs responded by launching a press campaign and organizing mass demonstrations in factories and workplaces during which ‘Zionists’ and ‘trouble-makers’ were indicted and anti-Semitic and anti-intelligentsia slogans shouted. Following the events of March purges were also staged in all state institutions, from factories to universities, on criteria of nationality and race. ‘Family liability’ was also introduced (e.g. with respect to people whose spouses were Jewish). Jews were forced to emigrate. From 1968-1971 15,000-30,000 people left Poland. They were stripped of their citizenship and right of return.

34 NKVD

(Russian: Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), People’s Committee of Internal Affairs, the supreme security authority in the USSR – the secret police. Founded by Lenin in 1917, it nevertheless played an insignificant role until 1934, when it took over the GPU (the State Political Administration), the political police. The NKVD had its own police and military formations, and also possessed the powers to pass sentence on political matters, and as such in practice had total control over society. Under Stalin’s rule the NKVD was the key instrument used to terrorize the civilian population. The NKVD ran a network of labor camps for millions of prisoners, the Gulag. The heads of the NKVD were as follows: Genrikh Yagoda (to 1936), Nikolai Yezhov (to 1938) and Lavrenti Beria. During the war against Germany the political police, the KGB, was spun off from the NKVD. After the war it also operated on USSR-occupied territories, including in Poland, where it assisted the nascent communist authorities in suppressing opposition. In 1946 the NKVD was renamed the Ministry of the Interior.

35 . Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, Ukr

Orhanizatsiya ukrainskykh natsionalistiv, (OUN): clandestine organization created in 1929. From 1930 carried out sabotage and diversion campaigns against Poles and Ukrainians favorably disposed towards Poland. In 1940 the organization split into the OUN-Banderivtsi (or Revolutionaries) and the OUN-Melnykivtsi, named after their respective leaders, Bander and Melnyk. The OUN-Melnykivtsi collaborated with the Germans, creating Ukrainian military divisions of the German Army (SS Galicia Division). The OUN-Banderists created the Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA).
 

Sophia Deribizova

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  • Семе́йное преда́ние

Мои прабабушки и прадедушки по материнской линии родом из Польши. На фотографии 1913 года прадед Барух Вингельников снят вместе со своей дочерью (моей бабушкой) Соней Гольдберг и ее детьми. Прадед рано овдовел. Женился вторично. Его дочь от второго брака Берта (1908 г.р.) жила в 2001 году в г. Бостоне, США. Обе дочери Баруха (Лия, Берта) были почти ровесниками с детьми Сони и дружны с ними.

Бабушку Соню привезли из Польши для того, чтобы выдать замуж за Исая Гольдберга - моего деда. Ей в ту пору было всего 16 лет и она очень тосковала по родному дому. Всю жизнь Соня была домохозяйкой, родила и воспитала 6 детей - 5 девочек и одного мальчика. В семье был достаток.

Исай Гольдберг вместе с четырьмя братьями (Абрамом, Пинхасом, Давидом, Левием) владели промтоварным магазином. Торговали оптом и в розницу. У каждого из братьев Гольдбергов был свой дом, прислуга. В дом моего деда нанимали кучера, кухарку и горничную, держали лошадей и корову. Летом детей вывозили на собственную дачу в курорт Шиванду в окрестностях Нерчинска. Для детей нанимали няню. Одно время няней был китаец, и дети очень любили его. Дети Сони и Исая: Яков (1892 г.р.), Рахиль (1895 г.р.), Шифра (1900 г.р.), Лия (1903 г.р.), Малка (1905 г.р.) - моя мать, и Дебора (1907 г.р.).

Дети росли в атмосфере близости к природе и любви к книгам. Малка очень любила ухаживать за животными (лошадью, коровой). Позже, умение обращаться с животными пригодилось ей во время эвакуации в сибирскую деревню в период II Мировой войны. Только моя мать из всех эвакуированных умела доить корову, править лошадью.

Бабушка Соня много читала. Ее любовь к книгам передалась детям. В Нерчинске была доступна всем большая библиотека  известного в Сибири предпринимателя Бутина. В народном доме, построенном Бутиным, устраивались балы.  На одном из них Шифра получила приз за  самую маленькую ножку. [Народные дома это клубные учреждения в дореволюционной России, где размещались библиотека с читальней, театрально-лекционный зал, воскресная школа, чайная, книготорговая лавка.

Народные дома создавались на средства органов городского самоуправления, обществ грамотности и отдельных лиц. Первые народные дома были открыты во 2-й половине 80-х годов 19 века  крупными промышленниками и оказывали на население большое культурное воздействие театральными коллективами, комплектованием библиотек. Большевики широко использовали народные дома для ведения революционной пропаганды, организации массовых митингов. После Октябрьской революции 1917 на смену народным домам пришли массовые культурно-просветительские клубы]

Все дети закончили гимназию, где преподавали учителя высокой квалификации. Якова, Шифру и Дебору учили игре на фортепьяно. В последствии в 20-е годы Шифра подрабатывала тапером в кинотеатрах немого кино. Зимними вечерами собирались дети всех братьев Гольдбергов. Играли, музицировали, сообща лепили пельмени. Было весело!  Дед Исай, игравший на скрипке. И его дочь Шифра на пианино образовали дуэт, который справлялся даже с серьезными произведениями. В семье не было духа строгой религиозности. Посещали молельный дом, обязательно отмечали дома еврейские праздники. В доме говорили по-русски. На идиш говорила только бабушка Хася - мать братьев Гольдбергов.

Антисемитизма не ощущали. Среди тех. Кто посещал дом Исая был и священник местной православной церкви. Мама рассказывала. Они - дети - чувствовали свою “отдельность” только в гимназии на уроках закона божьего: их освобождали от этих занятий. Еще перед революцией умер от рака горла дед Исай. Всю жизнь он любил крутой кипяток. Болел. Лечили его  в Москве. Вставили трубку в горло. Но такая жизнь длилась не долго.

Незадолго перед революцией брат Яков поехал в Петербург, чтобы поселиться там. Ему пришлось каждую неделю платить уряднику взятку, чтобы тот делал вид, что не замечает еврея, нарушившего “ценз оседлости” . Потом Якову надоела такая ситуация и он вернулся в Нерчинск.

Революция и гражданская война резко изменили жизнь семьи. Власти Гольдбергов “уплотнили” т.е. отобрали часть жилья в пользу пролетариата. Отобрали винный завод у двух братьев Голумбов, которые были мужьями Шифры и Лии. Завод разгромили, а винный дух еще долго витал над городом. Братья Голумбы уехали в Харбин и больше о них ничего не было слышно. Шифра и Лия остались в Нерченске с детьми. Дочь Шифры умерла в возрасте до 3-х лет, а сын Лии Гдалий в 16 лет в блокадные дни в Ленинграде.

С середины 20-х годов сестры и брат Гольдберг потянулись в Ленинград, Иркутск. Первой уехала моя мать в 1924 году. В Ленинграде  она закончила техникум хлебопекарной промышленности и получила профессию экономиста. Дебора уехала в Иркутск и поступила в экономический техникум. В конце первого курса ее исключили из техникума. Из-за того, что посмела на вечере в техникуме танцевать фокстрот! Позднее она вместе с двоюродной сестрой, тоже исключенной, обратилась к министру культуры А.В. Луночарскому, приехавшему в Сибирь. По указанию министра их восстановили. Но Дебора уже уехала в Ленинград и выучилась на нормировщика.

Последней уехала Рахиль, похоронив мать. В 1929 году мама вышла замуж  за Бориса Дерибизова. Он был русский. Познакомились на вечеринке земляков-сибиряков.

  • Де́тство

В 1930 году родилась я - София.

В начали 30-х годов сестры прислали моей матери из Нерчинска в Ленинград багаж (мебель и другие вещи). Багаж сразу конфисковали. Власти хотели забрать и вещи из квартиры родителей, но отец убедил, что они принадлежат ему, и тем все спас.

В Ленинграде наша семья - мои родители и я - жили трудно. У отца было больное сердце, был инвалидом, не работал. Работала мама, а мною занималась замужняя сестра мамы Рахиль. Она была замужем за Генрихом Иоффе, который преподавал математику в кораблестроительном институте. Мы жили в одной из двух комнат Рахили в коммунальной квартире. Для того, чтобы попасть в нашу маленькую комнату  мы должны были пройти через всю большую комнату Рахили. Отец очень страдал от такой жизни. И в марте 1941 года его не стало.

К началу II мировой войны я окончила три класса государственной школы.  Любимым предметом у меня были математика и история. Ребенком в школе и позже в детинтернате в войну я не испытывала проявлений антисемитизма, никакой обособленности, как еврейка, не чувствовала.  Жили мы на канале Грибоедова, недалеко от православной Никольской церкви и Синагоги. Будучи детьми забегали в тот и в другой Храм. Помню, как в Синагоге служитель мягко спросил меня: “А что здесь делает русская девочка?”. Я не поняла, что это значит...

У меня были подруги. Это были одноклассники. Были ли они евреями, не знаю. Тогда, в 10-летнем возрасте меня это не интересовало.

  • Вое́нное вре́мя

Войну я провела в детинтернате в Тюменской области. Вместе со мной была моя мама. Она работала там воспитателем.

  • Послевое́нное вре́мя

В августе 1945 года мы вернулись в Ленинград. Я поступила в 8 класс. Мама начала работать в НИИ экономистом. В течении 1945-51 годов мы жили в арендованных комнатах, так как своей жилплощади у нас не было. В 1953 году я окончила Гидрометеорологический институт в Ленинграде. И до ухода на пенсию проработала гидрологом в системе Гидрометеослужбы.

В 1982 году при оформлении загранкомандировки на конференцию в Румынию райком КПСС не дал мне разрешения на поездку. “Причина - не работала в 1957 г., а может быть она,  как дочь еврейки, в это время собиралась эмигрировать в Израиль?” - сказали в райкоме начальнику нашего отдела кадров. И это за 50-годы?! Абсурд! Через месяц под нажимом коллег и отдела кадров я подала документы вновь. Прошла жесткое собеседование в райкоме (все вопросы задавали об Израиле), и поездку разрешили.

Интерес и сопереживание с еврейским народом у меня начались с Нюрнбергского процесса. Большое негативное впечатление произвело чествование Сталина в день его 70-летия в 1951 году. Дело врачей в 1953 году, события в Чехословакии и др.окончательно изменившие мои взгляды.

В 1970 году после отъезда родственников (семьи Берты Вингельминовой-Кроль) в эмиграцию я начала переписываться с ними. Моя мама очень боялась за меня. Письма приходили не на домашний адрес, а на абонентский ящик, чтобы соседи не знали о моей переписке. Мама боялась, ибо почти всю жизнь в ней жил страх обнаружить свое богатое еврейское прошлое.
 

Dr. Gabor Lazar

Dr. Gabor Lazar
Kovaszna
Romania
Interviewer: Emoke Major
Date of interview: September 2005

Dr. Gabor Lazar and his wife live in Kovaszna, in a storied house they built by their own efforts.

They both gave me a warm welcome, I was even given a bag of apples when saying goodbye.

Gabor Lazar is a helpful, open person, he has a large sphere of interest, though since his retirement he takes the most pleasure and time in going into Esperanto.

He is a member of the Universal Esperanto Association, moreover, he is the Romanian representative of the Esperanto Universal Medical Association, and he publishes articles regularly in the International Medical Journal.

  • Family background

Our family on my father's side was Sephardi; they were Spanish Jews, who were expelled from Spain 1. They drifted, then settled here in Transylvania 2. My paternal grandfather, Jeno Lazar was a bailiff, a land-agent in Patohaza [in Romanian Potau, 22 km east of Szatmarnemeti], which is in the region of Szatmar [short for Szatmarnemeti, in Romanian Satu Mare].

There was an estate where my paternal grandfather was employed, where they were involved in agriculture. Then at some point after World War I, during the 1920s, they moved from there to Szatmar, where they bought a house.

My paternal grandmother was Jozefa Stein, the family called her Pepi. I can’t relate anything good about the old woman, because she set her sons against each other all the time, causing the family many problems. So I don’t have any good memories of my paternal grandmother.

My paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews, religious people: my grandmother had her hair cut, and she wore a wig all the time. They followed the laws of the kashrut, and like us they had animals slaughtered by the shochet.

My grandfather was a very skillful man. He did the cooking, the shopping, he did everything. My grandmother was in poor health; she went to the doctor all the time as she was diabetic, she had cardiac disease, she had many complaints. They didn’t have a servant, my grandfather did everything in the house.

He died suddenly at the age of 76 but could move perfectly well until then, he was never ill. He went out on a Friday to the local market to do the shopping, to buy vegetables etc. When he came home, he said, ‘Pepi, I don’t feel well.’ He laid down on the couch and was dead in an hour.

He must have had a heart attack. That’s how he died, that’s what my grandmother told us. He was buried that very day, as for Jews it is compulsory to bury someone on a Friday because of Sabbath. He's buried in the Orthodox cemetery in Szatmarnemeti.

After that, my grandmother's children took care of her until she was deported in 1944 with all her family, everybody. She died there in Auschwitz, together with her children and their families.

Everybody was deported and died in Auschwitz, except for two cousins: Anna Lazar, who came back to Szatmar; and Miklos Farkas, who also came back. Nobody else survived from the family on my father’s side.

My father Jozsef was the eldest of his siblings. After him came two brothers, Lajos and Sandor, then two sisters, Laura and Ilona. They had one more brother, who died at a young age and is buried in the Jewish cemetery in Szatmar. I don’t know his exact name, as the family always called him Lali or Lalika.

Lajos Lazar was a landowner in a village close to Szatmarnemeti, in Szamoskorod [in Romanian Corod, 12 km south-east of Szatmarnemeti]. His wife was called Laura and they had a daughter, Anna. She was the only one of my father’s family who returned from deportation.

Anna Lazar became Anna Weisz when she got married after the war [World War II] in Szatmar; she and her husband then left for Israel, where she still lives. Her husband has since died. Sandor Lazar never married; he lived in Szatmarnemeti with his parents and assisted his brother, Lajos Lazar in farming.

The third oldest sibling was a girl named Laura. She got married in the Avas, in a village called Turc [in Romanian Turt, 38 km north-east of Szatmarnemeti], which was famous for its plum brandy.

[The Avas or Avassag, in Romanian Tara Oasului (the Land of Oasa) is a depression opening to the plain, in the historical Szatmar county, at the foot of the Oasului Hills. In the Middle Ages its villages belonged to the estate of the royal fortress of Szatmarnemeti. Its population is mainly Romanian. Its Romanian name (Oas) comes from the Hungarian name (Avas).] Laura's husband was called Samuel Farkas.

Their son, Miklos Farkas, who also came back after World War II, did forced labor. Miklos lived in Szatmar after the war, then he emigrated with his family to America in the 1960s. He had three children who still live in America, but he has since died.

Miklos had a sister called Ibolya, who was married to a doctor, Dr. Ferenc Rosensamen; they lived in Szinervaralja [in Romanian Seini, 33 km east of Szatmarnemeti], and had two children, twins, who were ultimately deported together with their mother.

They too were deported from Szatmar, because everybody was gathered there from the surrounding villages. They died there. Dr. Ferenc Rosensamen returned after being deported, and then went abroad.

The youngest sibling was a girl called Ilona who we knew as Ilonka; she was married to Ignac Katz and they didn’t have any children. They lived in Temesvar [a city in the Banat region of western Romania], and when the Second Vienna Dictate 3 was pronounced, they came home to Szatmar, and ended up being deported from there. If they had stayed in Temesvar, and hadn’t returned to Northern-Transylvania, they wouldn’t have been deported.

My father, Jozsef Lazar, was born in 1891, in Nagybanya [in Romanian Baia Mare]. He had a final examination certificate, which showed that he graduated from a school of commerce. He was a bank clerk in Szatmar when he was young; then, when a common army 4 was established for the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy during World War I, he enrolled there as a first lieutenant and fought throughout the World War.

He fought on all front-lines, starting from Galicia 5, Romania and Serbia, and they occupied Bucharest as well; there's a place to the north-west of Bucharest called Gaesti, where he was a town-mayor. During retreat he withdrew with the Austro-Hungarian troops, which is how he got to Hungary.

Since he knew it would reflect badly on him in the eyes of the Romanian authorities that he had been a town-mayor in Gaesti, he didn’t return for a few years, and instead settled in Hungary.

My father had many medals; Franz Joseph 6 even gave him a retirement deed, awarding him a pension which would have enabled him to live carefree. But the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy failed, so nothing came of it. My father had 48 wounds, he even lost one eye. Thus he was a war invalid, so he at least received a disability pension.

In those times there were large estates, and as my father was good at farming, he became a bailiff near Nagyecsed [a town in Eastern Hungary], at Zsirospuszta, looking after an estate in the fens of Ecsed, while the owner called Forray lived in Budapest. Forray had three land agents, one of whom was my father, and another was Moricz Vertes, the husband of one my mother’s elder sisters. My parents met each other there, when my mother was visiting her sister, Malvin.

My maternal grandparents, Karoly and Veronka Groszman, lived in a large village, in Szakoly [in Eastern Hungary], near Nagykallo. There was another large estate, where my grandfather was the bailiff. After that they moved to Debrecen [the second largest city in Hungary after Budapest], I think in the 1930s.

I remember visiting them in that village, in Szakoly, but then I have memories of them as living in Debrecen. They lived in a small street in Debrecen, called Zsak Street. The house was bought by Moricz Vertes, and my grandparents lived there with him and his family. They were already old, and I suppose my grandfather had some saved money, and they lived off it.

They observed religion, but they weren’t quite Orthodox. My maternal grandmother didn’t cover her hair. We moved to Romania, so we weren’t really in contact with the maternal side of my family. I can only say that we, the grandchildren, very much loved our maternal grandparents, they were very good people.

Thankfully my maternal grandparents were deported from Debrecen to Austria; they were in concentration camps, but they didn’t end up in the gas chambers. When they returned from deportation, they went home to Debrecen, and lived there until their death.

[Most of the Jews from Debrecen weren’t taken to Auschwitz, but to Strasshof, which was a transit camp near Vienna, Austria; from there the deported persons were sent to different workplaces. One had a real chance to survive Strasshof, likewise the different industrial and agricultural places to which they were sent to work from there.] They lived with one of my aunts, Erzsebet Laszlo [Erzsike], who looked after them until they died in around 1949-1950. They were about 80 years old, and were buried in Debrecen.

There were five children in my mother’s family. First was Malvin, then Rebeka, then Erzsebet, then my mother Sara, and lastly Jeno; he was the only boy. Malvin's husband was Moricz Vertes, they magyarized their name 7. They lived in Zsirospuszta [in Hungary], her husband was a bailiff, a land-agent there, my mother and father met at their house.

They had a daughter, who lived in Mateszalka [a large town in Eastern Hungary], whose husband was a doctor; they died following deportation. I didn’t know them. They also had a son, Andras Vertes. Andras was the director general of a wood company in Budapest after the war [World War II], but he died many years ago. I don't know anything about his family, as we didn’t have any contact with them.

The second of the siblings was Erzsebet; her husband was Jozsef Laszlo, they also had a magyarized name. They had two sons, the elder Istvan, the younger Laszlo. Laszlo died in an accident before deportation and is buried in Debrecen. My aunt's husband died before the war. She was the aunt who took care of my grandparents.

After my grandparents died, Erzsebet moved to Budapest with her son, Istvan, and she died there. Istvan, after he came home from forced labor, was an activist in the catering trade union. He was a very upright person, he wasn’t married. He died suddenly at the age of 45.

Rebeka lived in Nyiregyhaza [a city in North-east Hungary], where her husband, Lajos Fulop, had a printing shop. They had three daughters, two of whom were deported together with the parents; they all died there. Only one daughter survived, Lilike; she was in Budapest, so they couldn’t take her. After the war she left for Israel, and lived in Haifa; she died in 2004.

After my mother came Jeno Groszman. Jeno changed his surname to Gal. In 1945 the Arrow Cross 8 carried him out of Budapest, and he didn’t return. His daughter, Agnes Szanto, lives in Budapest. His son, Gyorgy Gal was doing forced labor during World War II, and he also didn’t return. My mother was the only one of the siblings who wasn't deported. After the war three cousins were left in Hungary: Istvan Laszlo, Andras Vertes and Agi [Agnes] Groszman; only Agi is still alive.

My mother, Sara Groszman, was born in 1899 in Nagykallo [a small town in Eastern Hungary], in Szabolcs county. She finished elementary school, I think it had six grades back then.

  • Growing up

After they got married in 1924, my father was a land agent on a large estate. Then they moved to Hajdunanas [a town in Eastern Hungary] in 1925. In Hajdunanas my father rented a town hotel and restaurant, called ‘Bocskay Vendeglo es Szalloda’ [Bocskay Restaurant and Hotel].

My brother and I were both born in Hajdunanas. My brother, Istvan Lazar was born in 1925, and I was born in 1929. My father was demanding, so our home was very strict. I can tell you honestly that when my father was at home, we couldn’t breathe a word. When he left, well, then we had a good time.

My mother was a very good woman, she loved us very much. I was certainly more attached to her, and she was more attached to me. She was an excellent mother, she loved me very much. What can I say? They raised us, they made men of us.

We moved from Hajdunanas to Debrecen around 1930. My father ran a restaurant there too, ‘Kossuth Vendeglo es Szalloda’ [Kossuth Restaurant and Hotel], which I remember as a small child. The restaurant and hotel were on the square in front of the central railway station in Debrecen.

We lived there for about three years, but homesickness brought my father home to Romania. His parents were living there, and they lured my father to come home. They persuaded him to buy a small area of land in a village near Szatmar, in Vetes [in Romanian Vetis, 10 km west of Szatmarnemeti].

But their ulterior motive was that he would bring home the money he had saved, buy the land, that my grandparents would run the farm, and we would stay in Hungary. But my father didn’t go along with this; he also came and there was a big domestic argument because of this. At the same time, he bought half of the family house from my grandparents.

Thus in 1933-34, when I was about four years old, we came to Romania, but with passports. I spent my childhood in Vetes. We had 20 hectares of land, with cattle, horses, pigs and poultry. We hired a worker, who was a permanent employee; he looked after the animals and helped my father with the everyday farming work. He got an allowance, a salary in kind. The land we had was very good; we grew wheat, barley, oats, maize, potatoes, and fodder for the animals of course.

I lived on our farm until the age of five. But what happened? We also lived for a while in Szatmarnemeti, but only for about a year, because one day my parents were given notice to leave the country within 24 hours, through the ‘Sziguranca’ [complete Romanian name Siguranta Generala a Statului, i.e. the General State Security], this was the former Romanian Securitate 9.

I think some kind of reporting must have played a role in this, since how could the Sziguranca otherwise know who my father was? And the charge was that he had been a town-mayor in Gaesti during World War I. Somebody had recognized him and reported him. There was even an article published about the fact that he had been an officer in the Austro-Hungarian army.

The root cause of the dispute with my grandparents was that when we came to Romania from Hungary, they made my father buy half of their house in Szatmar. There wasn’t a problem until my brother started to go to high school, and our parents thought we would move into our house in Szatmar. We got into trouble over this, as my grandparents didn’t want us to move there.
So in 1936 they sent us away.

We packed up and went back to Hungary, to Debrecen, and stayed in a furnished room on Csok Street. We had to leave so suddenly, we only took a few suitcases with us. We tried to come over to Romania once with my mother; my father didn’t dare to come, so my mother and I came to take some more belongings.

We would have tried to settle things, but our names were reported at the frontier at Ermihalyfalva; we were blacklisted, so they prevented us from entering Szatmar. They put us on the next train back to Debrecen. As a war invalid, my father received a higher pension, which is what we were living on in Debrecen.

I remember his pension was increased from 35 to 50 pengo per month as a war invalid. Back then, the pengo was very valuable; 150-200 pengo was a great salary. We lived on the war invalid pension, we sold things too, and the family, the relatives supported us.

In 1938 we moved to a large village called Csenger, which was next to the border, in order to be able to farm. There one could apply for a dual frontier crossing permit issued for landowners, and one could cross over to cultivate the land. My father only had land in Vetes, but even so they issued him a permit.

This gave us an opportunity: the rule was that we came in the morning, and had to go back in the evening, so my father could look after the land. It wasn't far by horseback or on a cart, the frontier is about seven or eight kilometers from Vetes.

I started school in Szatmarnemeti in 1935 and finished the second year of elementary school in the Jewish Gymnasium of Debrecen in 1937. I then attended the local Jewish elementary school in Csenger for third and fourth grade. After I finished elementary school, I spent the first year of grammar school at the Jewish Gymnasium of Debrecen.

We lived in Csenger until 1940, when Miklos Horthy 10 marched in on his white horse, then we could return home.

After we came back, my father continued farming. Since my father was a Hungarian citizen, he wasn’t allowed to buy land in Romania, and he had been rash enough to give the land over to my paternal grandmother in 1933-34, when he had bought the land in Vetes.

Anti-Jewish laws 11 were issued and the land was expropriated; the only thing he managed to achieve was that they expropriated only half of the land; we still had the other half in 1944.

We lived in Vetes for about two years; then we moved to Szatmar because of school and attended the Reformed Gymnasium. And I will tell you now what the circumstances were then. In 1944 the Jews were taken. Prior to that everyone who wasn’t reformed had to bring a document to school – which confirmed that they had learned about religion, and which gave them a mark out of ten.

We had to bring one from the rabbi. The Jews had been deported in 1944, so I couldn’t bring anything from the rabbi to the school to put in my school report, so they didn’t issue it. We had such laws. Otherwise the rabbi had given everyone a mark of ten out of ten. In 1945 they issued it without further ado.

We didn’t attend the religious school, the cheder; my parents employed a teacher who spent about a year when I was seven or eight years old teaching us the prayers, everything.

My paternal grandparents were Orthodox Jews and my father was too. He spoke Yiddish as well, and I bear a grudge against him for not teaching me, because it is also an international language, like Esperanto. This was typical of Jewish families: children weren’t supposed to understand what the grown-ups were talking about.

My mother didn’t speak Yiddish, they spoke in Hungarian, but my father talked with his parents in Yiddish. My mother didn’t cover her hair, but she was religious as well, and we tried so hard to follow the kashrut, that in 1944, when one couldn’t find anything kosher, we preferred not to eat meat; instead, my mother cooked vegetarian food, as we observed our religion.

My mother kept a kosher household until my brother moved her to Bucharest in 1949, where she didn’t keep an entirely kosher home.

There weren’t any Jewish families in Vetes, just us. There were some in the surroundings, but in Vetes it was only us. There wasn’t a synagogue [prayer house], but while we stayed in Vetes, we went to Szatmar for holidays. We too, the boys, not only my father.

Moreover, there was a synagogue in Hungary, in Csenger too, which we went to. We didn’t go to the synagogue in the morning, at noon and in the evening, only on Friday evening, on Sabbath and the high holidays.

  • Our religious life

There were two marvelous synagogues in Szatmar. We frequented the Orthodox one and there was a smaller synagogue next to the Orthodox one, which is still there. But Jews sold the Neolog 12 one; it was then demolished, and the County Police station was built there.

There were a lot of Jews in Szatmar, within the town itself 13,000 Jews lived, which was a third of the town’s population. So there was a serious religious life. There were Hasidim 13 too, who wore special kaftans. Most of these observant Jews from Szatmar emigrated to America.

My cousin is there too, in New York, where a Hasidic community has been established. There was a Jewish district in Szatmar, the ghetto was made there. A few hundred people came home to Szatmar after being deported, and many people moved there too, but they left. Now there are no more than forty. They are responsible for the cemetery.

The Jews had wonderful rabbis. The rabbi of Nagykallo was such a wonderful rabbi too. Allegedly the song, ‘Szol a kakas mar’[a well-known traditional Hungarian Hassidic tune], was composed by this wonderful rabbi of Nagykallo.

This rabbi was from Hungary, but there were great rabbis in Romania too, for example the Hasidic rabbi of Bikszad was very famous, he lived in Szatmar. The rabbi of Bikszad was the leader of Orthodox Jewry in Szatmar and lived in a street next to ours.

He also led a Talmudic school there, where they were exclusively engaged in studying the Talmud, the scriptures. Back then we had a farm, we had poultry, and I remember my mother had to send him fresh eggs every day, because the rabbi ate only what was kosher.

Wherever there is a Jewish community, there is a ritual bath next to the synagogue; it's called a mikveh. Jewish men go there on Friday afternoon, I saw this in my childhood. There were two bathhouses in Szatmar: there was a town bath, which was quite neglected, and the Jewish bath, the mikveh, which was close to the synagogue.

The Jewish community maintained it, and it opened regularly. Non-Jews attended it too, as it was the better bath. [From a Halakhic point of view, non-Jews cannot be excluded from attending the mikveh. In former times, and mainly in smaller towns and villages the mikveh had a public bath function as well.] People didn’t have bathrooms back then, so we went there to take a bath. It had cubicles, a basin, a bath, shower and toilet and a steam bath as well.

Boys’ coming-of-age is celebrated when they reach the age of 13, nowadays it’s the same for girls too, that’s what I saw in Israel, what I heard. [Editor’s note: it remains age 12 for girls, in Israel and throughout the world.] When we turned 13, my brother and I were brought into adulthood; this celebration is called bar mitzvah.

One has to prepare for this, like for confirmation. We didn’t go to preparatory classes, because we could already read Hebrew. My bar mitzvah was celebrated in the Orthodox synagogue in Szatmar, which is where we lived when I was 13.

They take the Torah out of the Holy Ark, and invite the 13-year-old boy to read the portion of the Torah designated for that week, since there is a section for each week. After his bar mitzvah he is a full member of the congregation, not a child anymore and can count towards the ten Jewish men that are needed for a service [minyan].

Jewish men wear tefillin on their left arm and on their head while praying [for the morning prayers]. After becoming bar mitzvahed, we also had to wear them. I think I gave our tefillin to my cousin, who left for America after World War II, as I studied at university and I didn’t use mine.

We weren’t very Orthodox, but we were religious and observed all the holidays. Jewish holidays start on the eve of the holiday. Sabbath also starts on Friday evening, and the end of Sabbath is celebrated through a prayer. On Friday evening the holiday [Sabbath] started when my mother lit the Sabbath candles.

My mother lit four candles, because there were four of us in the family, then she recited the prayer, she blessed them. My father took us to the synagogue. After we went home, there were two braided loaves of bread on the table, called ‘barhesz’ [challah]. My father recited the blessing while he cut them, and gave a piece to each of us.

For the holidays we also had wine, he recited a blessing over it as well, then it was a custom that the father blessed the children [this is customary on Friday nights]. He put his hands on our head, and recited a blessing, and we only sat down to dinner after that.

My mother prepared all the meals for Sabbath on Friday, so that she didn’t need to do anything on Sabbath [in accordance with Jewish law]. Our national meal was chulent.

My mother prepared it uncooked in a pot; when we lived in Szatmar, we took the chulent to the bakery, where they put it into the oven, and next day at noon as we came out with my father from the synagogue, we brought the delicious chulent home.

We, the children, carried the chulent to the bakery and brought it home. Where we lived, we had an oven, we also prepared bread at home, and took it to the bakery. It was a very delicious meal.

From Rosh Hashanah to Yom Kippur there are ten days, known as the ten days of repentance; according to our religion, everybody’s destiny is decided during these ten days, and then is signed and sealed in a metaphorical 'book.' Yom Kippur is the Day of Atonement, this is the most important day [in the Jewish calendar] and is a fast day.

Before the fast we performed a ritual, symbolically freeing us of our sins through an offering of a chicken. Every member of the family recited a prayer, each person performed the ritual using their own chicken, which was then slaughtered by the shochet.

It was a humane procedure for sure; because he had such a sharp knife, the animal died in one second [in accordance with Jewish law]. The festive dinner was prepared from these chickens. In the evening after dinner, there was a service in the synagogue, then the 25 hour fast began. We, the children, also fasted for 25 hours, and prayed in the synagogue from morning to evening [children are not obliged to fast until after their bar mitzvah].

Then other holidays followed. First the Feast of Booths, Sukkot. We didn’t celebrate Sukkot in booths [sukkah], but we observed it in the synagogue. Then we have Simchat Torah, which is the celebration of the Torah, the last of the fall holidays. They take out all the Torah scrolls from the Holy Ark, and they carry them several times all around the synagogue, while the chazzan is singing.

One of our great holidays is Chanukkah, which falls in the same season as Christmas. Chanukkah also lasts eight days, and commemorates when the Jews reoccupied the Temple, there was only one pot of oil to be used to fuel the eternal flame, which would only have been enough for one day, but a miracle occurred, the oil burned for eight days.

There is a special Chanukkah menorah, which has eight candle holders; we didn’t have such a menorah. They light one candle on the first evening, two on the second, then three and so on, throughout eight days. People usually put it out in the window. At Chanukkah we lit candles, that was all. Any member of the family could light the candles.

We also played with spinning tops, called dreidels. My mother didn’t prepare cakes for Chanukkah, we didn’t get presents, just sometimes some coins from the parents, known as Chanukkah gelt.

The next holiday of the year which falls the day after the Fast of Esther, is Purim. They celebrate it for two days, and we observed Purim as well. We didn’t keep the Fast of Esther.

Purim is a joyful holiday for Jews, they do a lot of cooking and baking, they prepare all kind of good meals and sweets, all kind of delicious cakes. There is a certain cake with walnut, the ‘kindli’ cooked for this day, which looks like milk loaf with walnut cooked by Christians at Easter.

And there are the hamantashen, named after Haman: it is a triangular pastry, with walnut and jam filling. It is quite difficult to prepare it, it is wrapped-up in a specific way, my wife can’t do it, but it is very delicious. The Romanians call it ‘humantas.’ And the custom is to send a plate of cookies to other families and acquaintances in exchange or as a gift. We didn’t send cookies in exchange, and we didn’t dress up in masquerade either [as is customary on Purim].

Following Purim comes the holiday of Pesach. There were separate pots for Pesach they used only then, not during the rest of the year. We had separate Pesach pots as well. And we did a lot of cleaning before the holiday, because no crumbs could be left in the house, everything had to be cleaned up. If something is left by any chance, it has to be sold.

One has to conclude a formal contract on selling the ‘hamec’ [chametz], that’s what it's called. My mother wrote such a contract too, she wrote there a fictitious name saying that every piece [of flour] and all crumbs were sold, if any were left by chance after cleaning the house.

Starting from that moment there wasn’t any [chametz] in the house. They kept it, but it was stored separately, we didn’t touch it. At Pesach my mother cooked using matzah meal ['breadcrumbs' made from matzah instead of bread].

We observe Pesach to commemorate the miraculous escape of our ancestors from Egypt. The Jewish holidays are divided into main and half holidays. The first two days of such eight-day holidays are the high days, and the last two days are also high days, the other four days are just half-holidays, one might work, everything.

For eight days – in Israel for seven days – people eat only matzah. Here in the Diaspora holidays last eight days, in Israel they cut one day off, it seems they found this period too long, they celebrate for seven days [Editor's note: there are historical reasons for celebrating 7 days in Israel, compared to the 8 days of the Diaspora, nothing to do with finding the period too long.

It was to do with the time taken to report the citing of the new moon, which set the dates of the holidays].

We observed seder night at home. The seder night begins with the well-laid table, everything is fixed there, because the word seder means order in Hebrew. Well, first they put a big plate on the table, the seder plate, on which was placed a roasted egg, a small piece of roast beef, bitter herbs called maror, parsley, then there is a mixture, it has grated apple and smashed walnut, mixed with wine, and they put a little horseradish [Editor’s note: Gabor Lazar refers here to the charoset, which doesn’t have any horseradish, that one being part of the maror symbolizing the bitter herbs], all these recall the exodus of Jews from Egypt.

At Pesach one of the traditional foods for Jews was also the egg; I think Christians took over the custom from them [Pesach falls around the same time of year as Easter]. The matzah is put on the table and it is covered, three matzot are separated by three white serviettes.

Everybody has their own glass, and there is a superfluous cup put on the table for Elijah the Prophet. We poured a glass of wine for him, and when my father reached a certain passage in the prayer, we opened the door so that Elijah the Prophet could come in.

Before they eat and drink, they say a prayer, called Kiddush. After that one has to wash hands. First one has to dip parsley into salt water, and recite a blessing. Then the head of the family breaks the matzah to put aside the afikoman as well, they hid it.

In our family my father put it under his pillow, the seder table is organized in such way that the head of the family has to sit leaning, pillows are put to support him, this is the ritual. And the youngest member of the family puts questions to the head of the family, four questions.

I was the youngest in our family, I had to ask: ‘Why is this night different from all other nights?’ That’s how it started. Then the whole ritual is built on this, that the head of the family has to answer the questions in order to explain to the participants why they are celebrating Pesach, and he relates how Jews fled from Egypt.

Then everybody who is sitting at the table has to wash hands, then a blessing is said over eating the matzah, and all those who sit at the seder table are given matzah. After that they eat the bitter herbs, this is a tradition for recalling the misery and exploitation our ancestors had suffered in Egypt. Then the dinner itself comes. We had a normal dinner, but without bread, we had matzah. We had everything, we had meat-soup, second dish, dessert.

After dinner they take out, distribute and eat the afikoman. Children have to find the afikoman, and whoever finds it is rewarded. At the end the prayer after dinner is recited, and seder night ends with the humorous story from the end of the Haggadah – which is the prayer book of the Pesach night service – the Chad Gadya, that is One Kid Goat.

[The Chad Gadya and the Echad Mi Yodea are songs formulated in children’s language, but which have a profound religious and historical significance, and bear moral teachings.] We didn’t sing, my father told the story, and then we went to bed.

Well, that’s how a seder night goes. It lasts three hours, and the second night the same service is repeated. This was a family tradition for us, unfortunately since I left the family house in 1947, I participated for the last time, then I started to study, and I didn’t have the chance for it.

After Pesach comes Shavuot; this corresponds to Pentecost, and commemorates the day when we were given the Ten Commandments. This is also the festival of the harvest, as that’s when the harvest starts in Israel. We have one more great fast, that falls on the 9th day of [the Hebrew month of] Av. The First Temple was destroyed in 586 BCE, the Second Temple in 70 CE, and the two events fall on the same day, which is why it's a day of mourning. These are the traditional holidays.

  • During the War

In 1944 deportations began. All the members of our family were deported. We were so lucky that they exempted 14 us from enforcing anti-Jewish law, as my father was a lieutenant in World War I, and he was a war invalid.

Since we had been in a quite difficult financial situation in Hungary when we had returned there, my father had submitted a request to increase from 50 to 75 percent [the degree of his invalidity]. This was our great luck, because he wouldn’t have been exempted as a 50 percent war invalid, but with this 75 percent we could stay there.

In Szatmar only three families were left in 1944: us, there was a tailor called Salamon, who had also acquired merits during World War I, he had I don’t know how many children, so he got exempted, and there was the widow of a man who had died in World War I, Mrs. Dancziger, she and her two daughters weren’t deported either. But the authorities knew my father, and in 1944 the Hungarian Royal Gendarmerie did its best to also send us to Auschwitz.

It was a close shave that they didn’t take us, and also that they didn’t kill us [in Szatmarnemeti]. In May 1944, when the ghettos were built up in Szatmar, we were out on the farm, in Vetes. The gendarmes came, the cock-feathered gendarmes, they loaded us instantly, and carried us off to the local school of Szamosdob [Doba in Romania, is located 14 km south-west of Szatmarnemeti], but after two days an officer let us go when he saw our papers.

We went back [to the farm], but the gendarmerie couldn’t resign to the fact that we stayed there. So they took us for the second time after one month, in June, after they took away everybody [all the Jews] from Szatmar and the whole surrounding area; they took 13 thousand Jews from Szatmar, one third of the town’s population.

Let me tell you how it happened. We were on the farm in Vetes, and one morning Levente-soldiers 15 surrounded the farm. They didn’t say a word, but stood there and watched us so that we wouldn’t escape. Next day gendarmes came, they put us on our cart, and took us to the parish hall.

We packed up what we could, and I remember we had a red alarm-clock; well I put it into my package. When they examined our packages in the parish hall in Vetes, the gendarme found the clock. He says boorishly, ‘You won’t need that!’ Like this. And they took it.

From Vetes they took us to Szatmar, and handed us over to the Hungarian Royal Gendarmerie. They put us in the police prison of Szatmar to wait and see how they would decide upon our fate. The whole family was there: my father, my mother, my brother and I.

I was fifteen years old. We were there for almost one month in detention under remand. They sent our papers to Budapest to be certified. They took our family jewels too, and sent them with the ‘gold train’ to Budapest, to the National Bank; they never gave them back to us. We didn’t have much, we had just a few, because we were engaged rather in the land, but they took the few family jewels we had.

In the meantime my brother got ill. He got an effusive pleurisy, he felt bad, and we had no choice but to report that he was ill. There was a clerk [police officer] called Sarkozi, he stood in the door of the prison and said, ‘Who is ill?’ We said it was my brother.

He stroked his pistol, I can still picture him: ‘I will cure him!’ Like this. Finally the ambulance came and they took him to the hospital and treated him there. We stayed there until fortunately our papers arrived from Budapest saying that our family couldn’t be taken. There were plank-beds, we were sleeping on those, but they couldn’t take us away.

However, after this we didn’t dare to go back to Vetes, but stayed in the town. This Salamon family accommodated us, we stayed at their house in Szatmar, at the lower water-front of the Szamos river until September, when the great bombings started.

Szatmar was bombed, so we had to go back to Vetes. [There were air raids in Szatmar on 16th, 17th and 19th September 1944; seventy-six streets were attacked, the Soviet heavy bombers dropped bombs on thirty of these at least two times.]

Only one month was left until 15th October 1944, when Miklos Horthy announced the armistice 16. I remember we were very happy, we calmed down thinking that everything would be over finally. One night somebody was knocking at the window. Who might that be?

A villager called Acs, who I have since I heard has died, may he rest in peace, told us that the night before he was in the pub together with some Germans, they inquired about us, and allegedly the judge from the village informed them that there were Jews, so now they are coming to get us. It’s amazing what kind of people exist! Our house in Vetes was two or three kilometers away from the village, but that man came to us and let us know about this.

Well, we had a cart and horse; we got on the cart, and left immediately for Szatmar. It’s ironic where we hid in Szatmar. My father had a very good friend, Dr. Bela Wiesler, a Swabian lawyer, who had been the leader of the Volksbund for a while in Szatmar.

He was a very upright person. He and my father were very good friends, he received us into his house, we were there from 15th to 26th, October and we lived through the liberation by the Red Army, that’s how we escaped.

The fact that we survived is due to the Red Army. I still say that I’m grateful, because if the Red Army hadn’t come, who knows what would have happened, our turn would have come too. The Red Army took away our cart and the two horses. When we went back to Vetes, one morning we woke up to find that our eighteen years old mare, called Lepke [Butterfly], had fled home, and waited at our kitchen door.

  • After the War

When we went home to Vetes, people told us that the day after we had left, Germans had  indeed come out looking for us, they had turned the house upside down completely. We found our house plundered, they stole the cattle, they ruined us completely.

Allegedly Germans took many things, but I think others took part in this as well. Well, we tried then to somehow restore the farm, but we didn’t stay there, we moved to Szatmar, because our family house was there; my grandparents had been deported from there.

In 1945 a new town leadership was needed, so we organized the People’s Police. What happened then? There were just a few people in Szatmar who could have been taken into account [as communists]. In Romania the Siguranta 17 had imprisoned the illegal communists 18.

They had had two possibilities, either they were beaten to death, or they spoke. Thus the Red Army tried to gather those who had suffered persecution, so they appointed my father, who as a former lieutenant was well versed in army matters, to be the commander of the town police where we had been imprisoned.

The first parade was on 9th May 1945, on the ‘day of victory’ [when World War II was over officially]. My father was the commander of the police for one year, until there was a huge Jewish hospital in Szatmar, where he became the warden.

My brother worked for a few months at the police as well. After that, well, the democratic state had to be established, you know, so the Romanian Communist Party was established; he became a party activist, and they were organizing the Romanian Communist Party.

The elections had to be falsified, it was a great circus back then that the communist party won the elections in 1946, I think the first so-called election was held that year. Well, I remember for example going twice to the polls. The dead voted. That’s how they managed to overthrow the Liberal [in fact National] Peasants’ Party 19 led by Maniu and Bratianu.

My father was working, my brother was an activist, so at the age of 16 I was the one who managed the farm in Vetes. In 1945 we got back the other half of the land they had expropriated [due to anti-Jewish laws]. We were Hungarian citizens, and in 1945 we obtained Romanian citizenship. I still have Hungarian citizenship, I have a dual citizenship.

In the meantime I passed the final examination in 1947, at the Reformed Gymnasium in Szatmar, and I sat the entrance examination at the Medical and Pharmaceutical Institute in Marosvasarhely [Targu Mures in Romanian]; it was established just then, and was moved from Kolozsvar to Marosvasarhely. I got a scholarship.

In 1949 my father died due to cardiac disease and rheumatism; he is buried in Szatmar, in the Orthodox [Jewish] cemetery. We had a family burial plot in Szatmar, my grandfather is also buried there, my father is there, and one of his brothers [Lali Lazar]. My grandmother had her place there too, but she was deported.

There is a small house in the Orthodox cemetery in Szatmar, where plaques are placed; we, the relatives who came back, put memorial plaques there, in memory of those who had died there. So my grandmother has her own little marble tablet.

When somebody dies, that person has to be buried within 24 hours [according to Jewish Law, they must be buried as soon as possible]. The body is rolled up in a sheet, and they are buried wearing a white shroud [kittel]. The coffin is a rough board coffin, fixed with screws, because we believe that the Messiah would come on a donkey, and so the dead can rise again [and leave the coffin easily], that’s what the Jewish religion says.

After the burial, the first-degree relatives mourn for him. Their garments are torn, they cut the material and wear that item of clothing for one year. [Editor’s note: immediate relatives 'sit shivah,' shivah meaning seven in Hebrew. They openly mourn for seven days, during which time they wear the torn garment to symbolize their loss].

I still remember, I was a second-year student at the university when my father died in 1949. My clothes were torn, but my colleagues didn’t know why, so they came to me and told me, ‘It’s torn.’ The deepest mourning lasts seven days. Mirrors are covered, and they sit shivah on the ground for seven days; well, they put something not to sit on the bare floor.

They get up only to eat and to go to bed. After that there is a further period of mourning which lasts until the thirtieth day after the death. The complete mourning for a parent [the timings differ for siblings and spouses] lasts one year.

This means that the dead person’s sons go every day to the synagogue, and recite a prayer [the Kaddish] in the memory of the deceased at each service. We have a morning prayer, we have afternoon and evening prayers.

The mourner’s Kaddish starts like this: ‘Yitgadal v'yitkadash sh'mei raba b'alma di-v'ra chirutei’. [The son mourning his parent has to recite the Kaddish at the daily services for eleven months starting from the day of the burial. That’s how he honors his dead parent].  This is what mourning means for observant Jews.

I was in Marosvasarhely at university when my father died, so I went a few times in the morning to the synagogue, but I had to go to lectures, I couldn’t take a leave at noon and in the evening, so I arranged to pay somebody from the community, a poor man, who recited the Kaddish for me, every day for one year. We observed this, we observed this for my father.

So my mother became a widow, we were already adults. In the meantime my brother, already an activist enrolled to the faculty of law in Kolozsvar, finished his law studies there and became a lawyer.

They were looking for young people for the Official Gazette, and his dean, who later was considered a traitor as well, and was put in prison, recommended my brother to be employed together with a colleague of his. Thus he became the chief editor of the Monitorul Oficial [Official Gazette] in Bucharest, in 1950.

My brother took my mother to Bucharest with him, because he had a good job, and she was there until her death. She died in Bucharest in 1955, at quite a young age. She had an accident in November 1955: she was getting off the tram, it was dusk, the tram hadn’t yet stopped, and she stepped down and fell. She fractured her femoral neck and they operated on her; back then the operations for femoral neck and pelvis were novelties, great interventions.

I went to Bucharest to the hospital and stood by her during the operation, and in a few days after I came home – I worked then in Marosvasarhely at the Blood Transfusion Centre – I was notified that she had died. Her condition was serious when she was operated on, she almost died on the operating table; she got pneumonia too after the operation, she also had asthma, and she died.

She was young, only 56 years old. My father was 58 years old when he died. When I start to think, I’m 76 already, my brother 80. That wasn’t a decent life. They didn’t have an easy life. We didn’t have any ties in Bucharest, so we cremated my mother at the Belu crematorium, but when my brother left for Israel, I brought the urn here, and she is buried in the cemetery of Kovaszna.

My brother worked at the Official Gazette until 1964. When they found out that he and his whole family put their name down to leave for Israel, they kicked him out instantly, and they expelled him from the party as well. Then they left and settled in Israel. They adapted to it well, they are fine.

He passed the language exam in Israel, but he passed all the legal exams too, and he worked as a prosecutor for the Israeli police, and when he retired from there, he opened a legal practice in Rehovot. They live in Rishon LeZion, and Rehovot is not far from there. Do you know why Rehovot is famous?

The Weizmann Institute [of Science] is there. They are very well. He’s eighty years old already, and now he is a sick man, so he doesn’t work. But he was always a good brother to me, because he helped me. While I was a student, my brother helped me, well, learning always costs. When they arrested me, he came at once. He came to the trial, everything.

He met his wife in Kolozsvar. His wife is Judit Lazar, nee Jakabovics; she is from Nagykaroly and she is Jew. She studied at the Music Academy of Kolozsvar. They have one child, Peter, who was born in 1958, he’s married; his wife immigrated with her parents from Morocco. They have two beautiful children, one is called Maja, the other is called Gal. Maja is doing the army service now, her brother is one or two years younger, he’s still at school.

It’s only me who stayed here in the country from the family. I graduated from the Medical University in Marosvasarhely in 1953, with honors. In 2003 we had the 50th anniversary class reunion at the university; I got a golden diploma, they gave it to those who were alive. There were 120 of us who graduated that year, there were only 39 of us still alive. Doctors, pharmacists. And we had the 55th anniversary high school reunion in 2002.

I took the state examination in 1953, and then the placements followed. They held a general assembly, but before that they called me into the Rector’s Office, Dr Andrasovszky was the rector of the university, he was a neurosurgeon. He started to ask me about where I wanted to work.

Well, I didn’t know at all what to say. He then said, ‘Our party needs comrade Lazar here, in Marosvasarhely, in an institute, at the Blood Collection and Storage Centre.’ Well, I answered, if this is it, alright, it’s fine with me.’ ‘Please be so kind as to confirm this in the afternoon, at the assembly.’ And he said, ‘Congratulations for your degree with honors.’

Those of us who received such a red certificate with honors could choose our place of work. But why did I get to the Blood Collection and Storage Center? Because a few Securitate-men were referred there, and I don’t know what type of blood-plasma they were given, that a little water from the Maros river had poured into it; the blood-plasma was infected, because it was collected using primitive means, with the pump mounted on the water pipes, and all the Securitate-men had shivers.

I don’t know about anybody who had died, but they carried out a serious investigation among the doctors, and many left. There weren’t enough workers, they needed young people. That’s how I became the consulting doctor for three years at the Blood Collection and Storage Center in Marosvasarhely.

In the meantime I was sent to Bucharest in 1954, to the hematological centre; it's called the Institutul de Hematologie si Transfuzie [Hematological and Blood Transfusion Institute]. I got my qualification in blood transfusion; I was the first physician in Marosvasarhely who had a certificate in this.

Nobody wanted to go to this course. My brother was working there, my mother was there, so I presented myself. I went there, finished the course and got a qualification. I came back to Marosvasarhely, and I lived there until 1956.

What happened then? Well, they issued a decree saying that everybody had to perform a six-month long service in a village. This applied to me as well, so they placed me here, in this region [in Kovaszna’s surroundings]. First I was in Kommando in August and September 1956, from there they sent me to Kovaszna [today Covasna, in Romania, 191 km south-east of Marosvasarhely] to the hospital on the medical ward.

When the six months had passed, I started to think what to do, I had nobody in Marosvasarhely, only friends; my mother had died too. I thought I would try to leave Marosvasarhely entirely; I lived in lodgings there, I didn’t have a chance of owning an apartment.

I didn’t go back to Marosvasarhely after six months, I settled in Kovaszna. I met my wife here; she worked at the hospital as a clerk. In 1958 we got married, and since then I have lived in Kovaszna.

My wife, Rozalia Orban, was born on 28th June 1933, here in Kovaszna; she is reformed. Her father was a joiner, there is a house in the back of the garden, it is almost 200 years old, they lived there. My wife has a sister who lives in Szatmar, Terezia Orban; her married surname is Fazekas.

She was born in 1934 and has a son, Attila Fazekas. He also lives in Szatmar; he’s married and has a student daughter. My wife finished high school in Kovaszna, and she was a clerk at the hospital and at the construction co-operative.

We built up our house with hard work; it belonged to my mother-in-law and was an empty lot; she gave it to us to build a house here. The construction co-operative built the house, my wife worked there too. We started it in 1969, we paid for it in installments, we both worked, so I remember that the greater part of the salary was paid as an installment, and we lived on my wife’s salary; however we finished it step-by-step.

I have a son, Tibor Lazar, he was born in 1959. He finished at the timber vocational school, a technical school in Kezdivasarhely. He worked here in Kovaszna at the furniture factory, after that he was unemployed for two years, because the factory was liquidated.

Now he works in Kezdivasarhely as a technician in the furniture factory, called Mobexpert. He leaves every Monday, and comes back on Friday. He’s very lucky that he doesn’t have to commute, because his mother-in-law lives there and he stays at her place.

My daughter-in-law is a mathematics teacher here in Kovaszna, she has a good job, she also finished her studies with honors, and she has all the possible qualifications. She's quite well paid, and she also has private pupils, so they want for nothing.

They have an apartment in the center that I had bought for my son, back then when I could. They don’t have any children, but they are ok. My son is reformed, he is also confirmed, but he’s a member of the Jewish community of Brasso.

My career in Kovaszna: first I worked in the hospital, on the children’s ward, from there they appointed me local medical officer, then I was a doctor. All the factories from Kovaszna fell under my responsibility, and I retired from there after 37 years of service as a chief medical officer, in 1990; in 1963 I passed the exam for the chief medical qualification too.

I never joined any party, not even the Communist Party. I just simply didn’t, I'll tell you why. Because of my social background. I didn’t want to be kicked out as a kulak [a category of relatively affluent peasants in the later Russian Empire, Soviet Russia, and early Soviet Union].

My brother was in it, he had a job, but when they started to pry into things 20, and started to investigate him, he applied for a permit for his whole family, and left for Israel. But honestly I didn’t believe in all this communist system. I could see that there too, there was an upper crust, who enjoyed everything, and well, there were the others.

The only thing was that unemployment didn’t exist. Only this one. But we, who lived through these decades, we know how it was. I could have joined the party several times. When I started to study, they invited me then too, but I didn’t enroll. I got on well with everybody, but I wasn’t interested in politics.

When I was a student, they carried out an extensive verification of the party members. They organized it in the ceremonial hall of the university, and they invited me as an honest non-party person to participate; back then they called somebody an honest non-party person, if that person wasn’t a class enemy, only class-alien.

Back then the Siguranta had been thrashing these former communists, and there had been two cases: either they had beaten them to death, or the communists had confessed; and what happened after that? During this assembly it turned out that those who had confessed were expelled from the party.

They took them one by one, and carried out an inquiry. There was a committee, who called up the party members, and whoever had a past, had been imprisoned and had confessed, they were qualified as traitors, expelled from the party, and they re-organized the party from those who didn’t have a past. Those who didn’t have a past became the good communists.

Gheorghiu-Dej 21 and his company had been in jail for 12 years, then they turned against those who had come home from the Soviet Union 22, so there were serious party struggles. I never got involved in this. Back then many such trials took place, they executed for example Laszlo Rajk 23 as well in Hungary. What Rakosi organized there [the Rajk trial] 24, Gheorghiu-Dej and his company did the same here.

Nobody investigated me, I was an honest non-party man, I just simply didn’t join. I was very active within the labor union, I was vice-president of the local council. I couldn’t be the president, because I wasn’t a party-member. I was very active within the Red Cross, which gave me many distinctions, and I also helped the Women’s Committee.

I was a works doctor when in December 1986 I got arrested. I didn’t grant sick-leave to a woman worker. She had a relative at the Securitate, and she reported me. She wanted to ask for holidays, and I gave her one week. She wasn’t satisfied with this, so went to the gynecology department, and there she got ten more days.

After that she came back to me. There were about three, four or five people in the waiting-room, and this woman came and handed over a prescription. I took my oculars, took a look, and saw she had some kind of discharge, and the gynecologist prescribed her some medicine to purchase from the pharmacy.

I only said, ‘You go to the pharmacy, and buy your medicine.’ Well, this was only adding fuel to the fire, so she said, ‘You give to whoever you want to, and to whomever you don't want to, you don’t give. Just wait and see, because I’m going to fix this for you.’ And she ran away. I couldn’t prolong her sick-leave after the gynecologist. If he had had a proposal, if he had written there that he proposed further examinations, then yes. But I couldn’t.

What happened after a few days, maybe ten days? A car stopped in front of the consulting-room. I was just about to go to visit a patient, when they sent me back to the office; they turned it upside down, but they didn’t find anything significant. Then I thought there was something more to it.

Somebody brought me a small packet, every doctor got things, it was put in my locker. And when they opened the locker, I told them, ‘I got this today from someone.’ But I didn’t know what was in it. They opened it, there was some coffee, and hundred lei. But if I report myself, according to the laws in force I could have been let off.

Accepting a gift or money was considered bribery and was sentenced with three to six years of prison. I never asked anybody, and if the patient was poor, I gave back what they put in my pocket, so that the patient would buy their medicine from that.

Whoever willingly handed the bribe over to the authorities, or reported it, couldn’t get punished. That was the law then, proceedings couldn’t be started against a person who reported themselves. But it didn’t count at all, they didn’t take this into consideration, it didn’t matter that I presented them the packet, and it wasn’t the Militia who found it. They came to my home too, they searched through the whole house, they didn’t find anything here that would have shown excessive wealth for a doctor.

The substitute chief of the police of the inspectorate came out from Sepsiszentgyorgy [Sfantu Gheorghe in Romania, 30 km west of Kovaszna ], and they took me in the night, after the house search, and after that I saw Kovaszna again after being away for nine months.

They took me at the end of December 1986: first I was in prison in Sepsiszentgyorgy. They knew I was a Jew, and a Jew has gold even under his skin. They found out that my brother was in Israel, as they traced everything, so they thought I would have I don’t know how much gold and foreign currency and things like that.

In the meantime they made me include in my statement, ‘gold and currency’. I told them I had neither gold, nor currency. They took away all the family jewels they found, well they gave those back later.

I got fed up with all those interrogations, and then it came to my mind that wait, I have gold medals; I got them from the Red Cross. I told them, ‘I have got something.’ They weren’t interested in that. Then they interrogated me about traveling abroad too much. Whenever it was possible, we went with the family to the Czech Republic, Germany, we visited the Soviet Union, they issued a passport once in every second year, so we traveled somewhere.

And they say I was abroad a lot. I said, ‘Yes, I have relatives. Besides, if you’re that interested, you have the files, take a look to see where I was.’ The passport department was in the same building as the police’s lock-up, so they knew very well where and when we were traveling.

In January they took me to Codlea – Feketehalom in Hungarian, near Brasso [14 km north-west of Brasso], there's a huge prison there, where the trials took place. The charge against me was that I had been bribed, well, every doctor was given cash, people did that in those times, and they do today as well. This was the main charge, that’s why they planted that packet.

The woman who brought it was an undercover agent. They called on people from the factory for hearings, to give statements against me. Well, people found out that this woman had brought me that packet, and they gave her a good trashing.

After that she came to the consulting room, the nurse told me, and she was repeating that she was so sorry, that she felt so sorry for me, if only she had known, and so on, and so on; she was excusing herself. All this in vain, because I had already been caught and taken away.

It occurred to me, when I was already in Codlea, which way the wind was blowing. One of this woman’s relative was a party secretary in Sepsiszentgyorgy, at the county branch of the Securitate. And she set me up through that person.

I remembered this, because once [in Kovaszna] a woman worker came to me and asked me to prescribe her no matter what kind of medicine, because her son was working at the Securitate, so she could get it. So I started to think, well, these two women had the same name, they came from the same family.

They collected some 19-20 statements against me about having paid me this and that amount. However only three of them admitted at the court that they had indeed given me 50 lei or I don’t know what. So this was enough, I got sentenced to 18 months, the minimum.

I actually served half of it. I wasn’t a party member, that was the problem. Because if I had been a party member, I wouldn’t have been put in prison, they would have changed it into a deferred sentence.

The party was behind those. But nobody did anything for me. People collected signatures for me, to try to save me. There were people who told the others not to sign, because who knows what might happen to them.

Moreover, I had a patient who was a colonel in Bucharest, at the college of the militia, the police had a university, it still has. He came here every year with his pharmacist wife for summer holidays, and I was their doctor, they always came to me.

People called on him as well, but he didn’t do anything either. There was a public prosecutor in Bucharest, who knew all the prosecutors, people went to him too, what's more he was a Jew as well, but he didn’t do anything for me either.

They didn’t hurt me at all in prison. But one isn't taken for a human being, at least that’s how it was back then. Whenever we went out or came back, they counted us like one counts cattle. Every morning and evening there was a roll call, where they took stock of everybody to see if the number was right. One spring they took us to work in the bakery in Codlea.

I finished my work and sat down a little to take a rest. There was an officer, a very nasty character, who saw that I was sitting. So he grabbed a stick, and stroke once one palm, once the other. And he says, ‘Now you come with me.’ He gave me work until we went home in the evening, to keep me occupied.

When we entered the prison gate, they knew me there and greeted me from afar, hi doctor etc. So he found out I was a doctor. He found this out just right then. Well, from that point I got so much respect from him, he gave me exceptional treatment from that moment. They weren’t allowed to shake hands, but he shook hands with me. He was beating the others a lot, and he was the worst, he was a very cruel fellow.

I was exempted from army service, but at the police in Sepsiszentgyorgy, when they compiled my file, when they took me away, they wrote that I had completed my army service. This was my luck. This way, after a part of my sentence passed, they made me a supervisor, a ‘free,’ that’s how they called it in prison.

Instead of the striped clothes they gave me brown clothes, like the warders had, and a truncheon and whistle; we had training every morning in the prison’s yard, military exercises, they gave orders about what and how, and taught secret signs.

They took us to farms, factories, and we were the guardians, guarding the working groups. An under-officer came with us, there was about five or six of us who were guardians. The under-officer had a gun, we only had a truncheon and a whistle. But they didn’t escape. And when we were coming home, everybody had to be searched, to check that they didn't bring something in.

There were all kinds of prisoners in Codlea, half of them were gypsies. Sometimes there were even thirty or forty of us in the room, and sometimes only eight or ten. The rooms were large, with bunk-beds, sometimes we slept two in one bed, there were so many of us. And when they made me a supervisor, they separated me, I had better conditions.

After that it turned out that the prison doctor was a professor from Bucharest; he was sentenced to six years, and was taken to Bucharest. So the physician’s office was left without a physician. Before him a doctor from Brasso worked in the physician’s office, he was also a medical officer, his wife had reported him in revenge.

Then this professor. They helped me out with medicine etc., what one could get only with backing. Well, then I became the prison’s physician in their place. I worked for the men's section, a woman doctor from Brasso worked for the women’s section, she had a similar story. From that point I had a good life. The last two and a half months or so passed more easily.

Once the under-officer I mentioned before had a problem with his tooth; he came to my office, saying that he had a toothache and that it should be pulled out. I had never extracted a tooth in my life before, I can tell you that. I had an assistant there, a pharmacist, who had been sentenced to six years.

We had equipment in the office, all kinds, and the assistant said he would extract it. We sat the officer down, I was holding his head from the back, the assistant took the forceps and took hold of the tooth to pull it out. But he didn’t even move it, when he started to wail, ‘Ouch, ouch…’ What could we do? I said, well, let me see this.

I looked into his mouth and I see that his tooth was barely attached. The situation took a turn. I took the forceps and pulled the tooth out straight away. ‘Thank you, thank you’, he said. Sterility didn’t exist then, instead we gave him a lot of antibiotics to avoid infection. I became this officer's favorite, this one who stroked my palm at the bakery.

Once they scolded my wife badly in the prison for not speaking Romanian. She came to the office, and they were listening to what we were saying. She was speaking Hungarian. So they scolded her badly, as they wanted to understand what she was saying to me.

I will tell you what one goes through. A commission decides whether to release someone who has served half of their sentence, if they had a good behavior. The commission summons those whose sentence is prolonged. One afternoon the commission holds a meeting.

My case was due as well, since my file was submitted to the commission. I knew they would set me free within a few days. A prosecutor called Balea came from Brasso. So they came and told me, doctor, go to the commission. I was running, there was a club-hall, and the commission was there, one had to spring to attention of course.

I said: ‘At your command!’ The president of the commission told me to bring him some medicines. I took them, and also brought the blood-pressure apparatus. I measured his blood-pressure, then he told me it was alright. But the anxiety I went through, worrying what would happen, why had they called me in, I was running. Such circumstances, you see. And they let me go home a few days later.

I got home around 23rd August 1987. The nine months had passed, and they released me provisionally. People welcomed me in the town like a national hero. This colonel from Bucharest, to whom I was the consultant, and who did nothing for me, even though he could have, because he was close to the militiamen and the prosecutors from the region, well, he was here in a hospital.

After I came home, he fell on my neck, he kissed me. Then he came to visit us. He told me why they didn’t do anything for me. They were afraid of Ceausescu 25, they were afraid of spies, and that was the reason for not being able to do something. Thank God I lived through it, well, this is an experience as well, not everybody goes through such an experience.

Those who had done this lousy trick, they all died, without exception. For example I’ll tell you one thing. The person who led the house search, who was the substitute inspector at the county militia, he was called Magureanu; he was an extremely malicious character. He organized everything, the interrogation, the house searches, everything.

At the age of 52 these militiamen could retire. Then he got a very lucrative post as some kind of manager at the health insurance company. I don’t know what kind of dirty trick they did, they sold something, and I don’t know what he did with that money; in brief this Magureanu hanged himself and left a farewell letter. The Antena1 channel showed him laying on the catafalque. He died.

And what else happened! I got home. I was on duty at the hospital, the doctor on duty, when one evening somebody knocked at the door. Who should be standing there? Well, one of these crooks, a militiaman from Kovaszna, but very humbly, he says he has something to ask me.

I say, ‘What?’ In those times those who traveled abroad needed a medical certificate to confirm they did not have diarrhea. And he came to ask me for such a certificate. I told him to go to the district medical officer, it was his job. He said he couldn't, because he was leaving in the night, he was going to Hungary.

Well, I had pity on him, so I wrote him a certificate. He got leukemia and died of that. One more case. I was on duty again. One night they brought the child of the person who reported me. Her husband was a shepherd in Vajnafalva [Voinesti in Romanian], and a sheepdog had lacerated their child.

Then after I got home I was trying to get a job, since I was released, but my practice permit had been suspended for one year. However I could obtain one thing, thanks to a former classmate of my wife, who was the party secretary for county organizational issues: they repealed that year at the court, and certified that I wasn’t forbidden from practicing my profession. I got employment, but as an assistant. I was an assistant for a few months in my own office.

In January the great amnesty was granted, when Ceausescu had his birthday, they granted general amnesty. So they repealed everything, and in January 1988 I got all my rights back. A substitute had been appointed in the meantime in my office. I was lucky that he was from Bucharest, and he wanted to go back no matter what.

His father was working in Bucharest, I don’t know what kind of job he had. And I was making arrangements, I even went to Bucharest, to have my file settled, to get my job back.

And I was waiting and waiting, it was January already, and despite the amnesty, we could see that they didn’t send back anything. So this one’s father went there, they took out my file from the minister’s drawer, and they arranged it. I got the paper about getting back my job, they assigned me as the works doctor again, but with a minimal salary, like for a beginner.

In the meantime they introduced Law No. 18 in 1987 against those who had acquired their possessions illegally. They asserted it officially against everybody who had been imprisoned for bribery. They started proceedings against me as well.

I had some saved money in the savings bank, they demanded me to pay back from that money 112 thousand lei to the state. I won the trial at the court of first instance, but the prosecutor from Kezdivasarhely appealed against the judgment; he’s a great crook, he’s still a prosecutor, unless he's retired by now. So my case was transferred to Sepsiszentgyorgy.

We visited a former classmate of my wife, who was the county party secretary, she was in a high position, to show her that all the calculations were false, and they compiled the document against me with all kind of addition and subtraction errors. I mean intentionally, in order to obtain a certain amount. She told me, ‘I’m not here to re-calculate this for you,’ she picked up the phone, and sent us to the president of the court, to a person called Andras Ordogh; he is dead too by now.

We went to him indeed, well he received us, because the county party secretary had called him, and when we sat down, he told me to stay calm, because all this was very clear for him too. He told me I should leave the paper there, because he would get the case anyway, even if the prosecutor appealed, there wouldn’t be any problem. So, he reassured me that justice would be done.

Well, indeed, the first trial took place, I presented my arguments, how things were, and that their claim was unjust. They declared the sentence about two weeks later. We went there and I was confident that they would rule to my advantage.

But no! They ruled that the amount owed to the state, 112 thousand lei, was a lot of money. They knew I had some saved money in the ‘Csekk’ [CEC, that is Casa de Economii si Consemnatiuni, the Romanian National Savings Bank]. And when I went back to the president, he said he couldn’t help it, the sentence was final.

My lawyer told me to go to Bucharest, and start the retrial procedure again. The court president answered to this, ‘This could drag on for twenty years. You have to pay this out, because this is final. Then, he said, you can sue this further.’

I said I wouldn’t sue over this. In a few days I received the demand that it had to be paid, I had no choice, I drew out my money from the Savings Bank, I gave it to them, let them be happy. The head of the financial department, who is now the mayor, told me, ‘Doctor, you are the first to have to pay.’ I don’t know how many others suffered such proceedings, but here in Kovaszna I was the only person who had to pay.

When the revolution was over in 1989 26, my wife went to the court to take out the file, because all the invoices and receipts were there, everything. And she was told that the file wasn’t in the archives anymore, because they had given it out to a prosecutor or judge for re-examination.

It wasn’t enough that they robbed me, they wanted to start the proceedings again. So luckily for me the change came, I had luck with the revolution, and they couldn’t start any proceedings, so the matter was dropped, it didn’t have any continuation. But that’s what they did.

In 1989, when the so-called revolution took place, I had a lot of patients in Kovaszna, a lot of people respected me; they all welcomed me like a national hero when I had come home from prison. And when the change occurred, a council was established at the hospital.

Then the local council had to be organized, so we marched to the town hall with flags; the flags [the arms in the middle] were cut out, and they elected me to be a member of the Democratic National Salvation Front council as a representative of the hospital, so I became part of the town leadership.

However I could see after three or four months that things were changing back to how they were, everything was turning to its former shape, so I never went there again. I didn’t even ask for a revolutionary certificate, I left everything and let them do it. Politics didn’t suit me.

I didn’t join any party again after 1989, I’m not a member of the RMDSZ [Democratic Alliance of Hungarians in Romania] either. My wife doesn’t even go to vote. I did, but she’s right, because in fact they don’t do anything right.

In 1990 I retired. I had had a high salary before they had taken me away, and I wanted to have a pension based on that salary. When I came home from the prison, I was 58 years old, and I had to work until I would be sixty [the retirement age], but I tried to retire as soon as possible for my pension to be based on a high salary.

There was a law that at retirement one had to choose five of the last ten years of work, whichever you wanted them to take into account when calculating the pension. I could see my salary was low: when I came home from prison, first I got employed as an assistant, then I had a beginner doctor’s salary; so when I turned sixty years old, I applied for retirement.

So I’ve been retired since 1990. I substituted with my colleagues sometimes; we had a surgery at the pensioners’ association and I did that as a volunteer, until the family doctors’ system was established, then I stopped doing it and let the young people do it.

I’m a member of the Jewish community in Brasso. They usually organize seder night, they invite me each year, but I can’t go to Brasso, it’s too far. [Brasso is 54 km south-west of Kovaszna] I got the invitation for the fall holidays just today.

They organize Purim too, the table is laid, everybody can eat and drink, and usually a great celebration is organized, with a show, they set up plays about Haman, Esther, this is usually on Sunday. I could go to see this, I think we went there twice.

Even today I observe three fasts. One of these is the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur, after New Year. The other is the Fast of Esther, and the third is Tisha B’Av, on the 9th day of Av; this is a day of mourning, because the Temple of Jerusalem was destroyed in 586 BCE, then in 70 CE by the Romans, the two events occurred on the same day, and we observe this fast in the memory of this.

I observe these three fasts, this is my pledge. I went through so many things, as I related to you, so I observe these. I don’t eat or drink for 24 hours. I take dinner, and after 24 hours I take dinner again.

Moreover, let me tell you one thing. This summer we went on a very nice trip to Greece. And the 9th day of Av fell during this period. So I solved this problem, since our first day on the Isle of Crete was the day of the fast, and we got meals there, I brought forward the fast by one day, so that I didn’t have to break it. I observe the [Christian] Good Friday as well, I fast like Christians. I value everyone’s religion, I respect my wife’s religion as well.

I observe Pesach, well I eat bread, but I have matzah too, for the sake of tradition. For example my brother doesn’t observe it; they are modern Jews in Israel. I have a mezuzah on my door. I went to the community office, and I told them I would like to buy one. They took one out of a drawer and gave it to me. As a gift. And it is fixed on the doorpost. Well, we don’t really have such things here in Kovaszna. [This is said to be the only mezuzah in the town.]

I pray each day at dawn and before falling asleep: I recite the Jewish prayers: the Shema Yisrael, Hear O Israel, that’s the main prayer, and I also recite the Lord’s Prayer. I believe there must be something that created the universe.

I went through many things, and I think there is something in the universe, what should I call it, I don’t know, which directs one’s destiny. I study other religions a lot, I’m in touch with many denominations, this is a hobby too, like the Esperanto.

Recently I got in touch with a foundation, its headquarters is in Bucharest, it is called the Bridge of Friendship, Fundatia Crestina Podul Prieteniei in Romanian [Bridge of Christian Friendship Foundation]. They contacted me, they sent me books, and they send me greetings for each holiday, they observe the Jewish holidays as well. They believe in the Messiah, there are Christians and Jews among them. I believe in him too.

There were Zionist organizations in Szatmar, but we weren’t members of those. To tell the truth I didn’t really know what it was about. The only thing I knew about Zionism, was that its aim was the creation of the state of Israel 27. Tivadar Hertzl [Theodor Herzl] 28was the conceiver of the state of Israel, he was a Jew of Hungarian origin.

He has a marvelous mausoleum in Jerusalem, we visited it. In fact the state of Israel was proclaimed on May 14th 1948, right on my birthday. Israel was born on that day, David Ben-Gurion 29 announced Israel’s independence.

We visited Israel in 1980. We were there for one month and visited all the holy places: we were in Bethlehem, in the Church of the Nativity, in Jerusalem, in Nazareth, at the Dead Sea, we were everywhere. It is a very nice country, and one can see they created there a land of plenty indeed. It is a wonderful country, only if there would be peace, shalom. Attempts occur all the time.

My brother’s wife had a cousin, Gyorgy Jakabovics, he was a lawyer or a notary in Holon. Once there was a huge attack at Pesach. They organized seder night in the Park Hotel, near Holon. This family went there together with the children. The parents entered the hotel, and the children went to look for a place to park their car.

This was their luck, that’s how they survived, because the parents died inside. The hotel and the restaurant, where the Pesach seder night was organized, were blown up. This happened about five years ago. [Editor’s note: this terrorist attack took place in the Park Hotel in the coastal town of Netanya in 2002.]

I also counted on leaving for Israel after I was released from prison. But I started to think it over and decided not to leave, since we already had our house built, everybody knew me here, I didn’t want to start a new life, to learn a new language. It would have made no sense at all at the age of 58 or 59.

Though doctors were very well off there, they didn’t even have to pass any exams, but I didn’t leave. The fact that we lived in a mixed marriage also played a role. I knew very well that my wife would have never felt good under the circumstances that were typical for Israel back then. Now things have changed, it doesn’t matter if someone is a Jew or Christian, but then it counted from a social point of view.

After the war we repaired the house in Szatmar, and moved in. When my mother moved to Bucharest and I was studying, my cousin Miklos Farkas lived there; they also left for America, and because they didn’t know I was in the country, they nationalized the house, as it was unclaimed.

When properties could be claimed back, I took my succession certificate, and claimed it back. There were four of us who were eligible to inherit it: two cousins, one of whom left for America and Anna, who was in Israel, and my brother and I. I claimed it twice. I submitted the request and in 1996, they approved to give it back.

The house was already sold, there was nothing to do, they had to indemnify us. But they didn’t pay anything, because they wrote that only after the house had been appraised could they give some indemnity. In the meantime Law No. 10 was introduced, so I submitted the documents again.

Eventually they appraised the house, and I got an indemnity. My brother renounced it in my favor, so I got one third. This matter has been dragging on since 1996, and I got it back recently, they paid 337 millions.

At the same time we had 20 hectares of land in Vetes, but after the revolution only ten could be claimed back. However, they established there a huge experimental station for fruits, and our property fell in that area. This experimental station covered I don’t know how many hundreds of hectares.

When we could claim it, they didn’t give it back, but I became a shareholder of the experimental station. Sometimes they paid, more often than not they didn’t. When the new law was issued, I submitted the request as well, so they gave me back ten hectares.

The land has a little orchard, not a big one, I have fruits approximately on one hectare from the ten, and the remaining land is plough-land and hay fields. They didn’t give back the land where our property was, that had a very good soil, but it was given to the local insiders.

However, this part isn’t bad either, it is closer to the village, I have seven hectares in one piece, and three hectares a little further away. Szatmar is 600 km from here, well I can go there once a year at most to look around and think about what to do with this land; there is a local innkeeper who rents it.

He pays a ridiculously low price: he gave me five and a half million for ten hectares, but the advantage is that the land is cultivated, and it doesn’t lose value. Unfortunately it seems that after he got rich enough, he didn't cultivate the land anymore, because due to the drought the harvest was poor two years ago.

So I got the land back. It's a little relief considering the pension, and I’m particularly glad to have the land because of my son; I won’t sell it, who knows what the situation will be, he has a job for the moment, but he could lose it in a second.

In 2000 the Law No. 189 on allowance was introduced, which applies to those who had been persecuted between 1940 and 1944. Since in 1944 we had been victimized, they robbed us, I also applied, and my application was approved.

This is almost like the war invalidity pension, it means a lot of discounts, reduced fares, I don’t have to pay a house-tax, then the medical treatment and medicines are free. Well, I have been rejoicing over it since 2000.

Moreover, I got a small amount from Hungary too, an indemnification, because they had plundered us completely, the retreating German troops had ravaged all our property. Since 2004 the Claims Conference grants me a life-annuity, since I’m a Holocaust survivor.

We travel somewhere each year, if we have some money saved up. Last year we visited Italy, we spent four days in Venice, and from there we went to Padua, Florence and Rome, we visited the Vatican too, then on the way back we saw San Marino, Vienna and Budapest.

It was a very nice, two week long journey. We also went to Greece, we toured the whole country, and spent the last week in Crete. We visited many interesting places, and people welcomed us cordially everywhere. This trip lasted 13 days, and we stayed full board the last seven days, there was buffet lunch and dinner.

This cost 460 euros per person, besides spending money. We were in many interesting places. It was a nice experience for me as a doctor, that the first night we slept in the small town where Hippocrates had lived and worked, in Katerini.

My main hobby is Esperanto. I’m a member of the Universal Esperanto Association, the Universala Esperanto Asocio, moreover I’m the Romanian representative of the Universal Medical Esperanto Association, whose headquarters are in Rotterdam.

The Medicina Internacia Revuo, the International Medical Journal is also issued in Rotterdam. I have a lot of articles published. I was awarded a prize for this in 1984, founded by Hideo Shinoda, who is an extremely rich hospital owner; he established a foundation, and was the honorary president of the Universal Esperanto Association.

The prize consisted of a 250 gram pure silver medal and of 500 Dutch guilder. For a while I was on the committee, which awarded this prize worldwide. Now the awarding process is different, and they give a smaller medal, because the association’s financial situation has changed.

Every year there is an Esperanto world congress, where 3 to 5 thousand people who speak this language gather together. The last one was in Lithuania in July, before that in China; the location always changes. In 1978 I was in Varna at the Medical Esperanto Congress, in 2001 we were in Zagreb at the World Congress, and I also spoke in Eszek, at the Medical Congress.

The Medical Esperanto Congress is organized every second year. I go to that more regularly; last time it was held here in Romania, in Nagyvarad. In 2006 a scientific medical conference was organized in Hodmezovasarhely, where I had three presentations. In 2008 there will be a congress in Krakow, when we will celebrate the 100th anniversary of the UMEA, the Universal Medical Esperanto Association.

  • Glossary:

1 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain: In the 13th century, after a period of stimulating spiritual and cultural life, the economic development and wide-range internal autonomy obtained by the Jewish communities in the previous centuries was curtailed by anti-Jewish repression emerging from under the aegis of the Dominican and the Franciscan orders.

There were more and more false blood libels, and the polemics, which were opportunities for interchange of views between the Christian and the Jewish intellectuals before, gradually condemned the Jews more and more, and the middle class in the rising started to be hostile with the competitor.

The Jews were gradually marginalized. Following the pogrom of Seville in 1391, thousands of Jews were massacred throughout Spain, women and children were sold as slaves, and synagogues were transformed into churches. Many Jews were forced to leave their faith. About 100,000 Jews were forcibly converted between 1391 and 1412.

The Spanish Inquisition began to operate in 1481 with the aim of exterminating the supposed heresy of new Christians, who were accused of secretly practicing the Jewish faith. In 1492 a royal order was issued to expel resisting Jews in the hope that if old co-religionists would be removed new Christians would be strengthened in their faith.

At the end of July 1492 even the last Jews left Spain, who openly professed their faith. The number of the displaced is estimated to lie between 100,000-150,000. (Source: Jean-Christophe Attias - Esther Benbassa: Dictionnaire de civilisation juive, Paris, 1997)

2 Transylvania : Geographical and historical region belonging to Hungary until 1918-19, then ceded to Romania. Its area covers 103,000 sq.km between the Carpathian Mountains and the present-day Hungarian and Serbian borders. It became a Roman province in the 2nd century (AD) terminating the Dacian Kingdom.

After the Roman withdrawal it was overrun, between the 3rd and 10th centuries, by the Goths, the Huns, the Gepidae, the Avars and the Slavs.

Hungarian tribes first entered the region in the 5th century, but they did not fully control it until 1003, when King Stephen I placed it under jurisdiction of the Hungarian Crown. Later, in the 12th and 13th centuries, Germans, called Saxons (then and now), also arrived while Romanians, called Vlachs or Walachians, were there by that time too, although the exact date of their appearance is disputed.

As a result of the Turkish conquest, Hungary was divided into 3 sections: West Hungary, under Habsburg rule, central Hungary, under Turkish rule, and semi-independent Transylvania (as a Principality), where Austrian and Turkish influences competed for supremacy for nearly two centuries.

With the defeat of the Turkish Transylvania gradually came under Habsburg rule, and due to the Compromise of 1867 it became an integral part of Hungary again. In line with other huge territorial losses fixed in the Treaty of Trianon (1920), Transylvania was formally ceded to Romania by Hungary.

For a short period during WWII it was returned to Hungary but was ceded to Romania once again after the war.  Many of the Saxons of Transylvania fled to Germany before the arrival of the Soviet army, and more followed after the fall of the Communist government in 1989.

In 1920, the population of Erdély was 5,200,000, of which 3 million were Romanian, 1,400,000 Hungarian (26%), 510,000 German and 180,000 Jewish. In 2002, however, the percentage of Hungarians was only 19.6% and the German and Jewish population decreased to several thousand. Despite the decrease of the Hungarian, German and Jewish element, Transylvania still preserves some of its multiethnic and multi-confessional tradition.

3 Second Vienna Dictate: The Romanian and Hungarian governments carried on negotiations about the territorial partition of Transylvania in August 1940. Due to their conflict of interests, the negotiations turned out to be fruitless. In order to avoid violent conflict a German-Italian court of arbitration was set up, following Hitler's directives, which was also accepted by the parties.

The verdict was pronounced on 30th August 1940 in Vienna: Hungary got back a territory of 43,000 sq.km. with 2.5 million inhabitants. This territory (Northern Transylvania, Seklerland) was populated mainly by Hungarians (52 percent according to the Hungarian census and 38 percent according to the Romanian one) but at the same time more than 1 million Romanians got under the authority of Hungary.

Although Romania had 19 days for capitulation, the Hungarian troops entered Transylvania on 5th September. The verdict was disapproved by several Western European countries and the US; the UK considered it a forced dictate and refused to recognize its validity.

4 KuK (Kaiserlich und Königlich) army: The name 'Imperial and Royal' was used for the army of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, as well as for other state institutions of the Monarchy originated from the dual political system.

Following the Compromise of 1867, which established the Dual Monarchy, Austrian emperor and Hungarian King Franz Joseph was the head of the state and also commander-in-chief of the army. Hence the name 'Imperial and Royal'.

5 Galicia: The Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria, or simply Galicia, was the largest and northernmost province of Austria from 1772 until 1918, with Lemberg (Lwow) as its capital. It was created from territories taken during the partitions of Poland and lasted until the dissolution of Austria-Hungary. Its main activity was agriculture, with some processing industry and mining, and the standard of living was proverbially low.

Today it is a historical region split between Poland and the Ukraine. Its population in 1910 was 8,0258,700 of which 58% was Polish, 40% Ruthenian, 1% German and 10% other, or according to religion: Roman Catholic 46%, Eastern Orthodox 42%, Jewish 11%, the remaining 1% Protestant and other. Galicia was the center of the branch of Orthodox Judaism known as Hasidism. Nearly all the Jews in Galicia perished during WWII.

6 Franz Joseph I Habsburg (1830-1916): Emperor of Austria from 1848, king of Hungary from 1867. In 1948 he suppressed a revolution in Austria (the 'Springtime of the Peoples'), whereupon he abolished the constitution and political concessions.

His foreign policy defeats - the loss of Italy in 1859, loss of influences in the German lands, separatism in Hungary, defeat in war against the Prussians in 1866 - and the dire condition of the state finances  convinced him that reforms were vital.

In 1867 the country was reformed as a federation of two states: the Austrian empire and the Hungarian kingdom, united by a personal union in the person of Franz Joseph. A constitutional parliamentary system was also adopted, which guaranteed the various countries within the state (including Galicia, an area now largely in southern Poland) a considerable measure of internal autonomy.

In the area of foreign policy, Franz Joseph united Austria-Hungary with Germany by a treaty signed in 1892, which became the basis for the Triple Alliance. The conflict in Bosnia Hertsegovina was the spark that ignited World War I. Subsequent generations remembered the second part of Franz Joseph's rule as a period of stabilization and prosperity.

7 Adoption of Hungarian names (Magyarization of names): Before 1881 the adoption of Hungarian names was regarded as a private matter and the liberal governments after the Compromise of 1867 treated it as a simply administrative, politically neutral question.

At the end of the 19th century the years of the Millennium brought an upsurge in the adoption of Hungarian names partly because the Banffy cabinet (1895-1899) pressed for it, especially among civil servants. Jews were overrepresented among those adopting a Hungarian name until 1919 (the last year when more Jewish than Christian people were allowed to do so).

After WWI, during the Horthy era, politicians did not consider the nation a mere political category anymore, and one had to become worthy of a Hungarian name. Assimilation of the Jewry was also controlled by this process (only the Minister of the Interior had the right to decide on it), and in 1938 the adoption of Hungarian names by the denominational Jewry was practically stopped.

After WWII, between 1945 and 1949, 50,000 petitions were filed, about a third of them by Jews, on reasons for changing German or Jewish sounding names.

8 Arrow Cross Party: The most extreme of the Hungarian fascist movements in the mid-1930s. The party consisted of several groups, though the name is now commonly associated with the faction organized by Ferenc Szalasi and Kalman Hubay in 1938.

Following the Nazi pattern, the party promised not only the establishment of a fascist-type system including social reforms, but also the 'Solution of the Jewish Question'. The party's uniform consisted of a green shirt and a badge with a set of crossed arrows, a Hungarian version of the swastika, on it.

On 15th October 1944, when Governor Horthy announced Hungary's withdrawal from the war, the Arrow Cross seized power with military help from the Germans. The Arrow Cross government ordered general mobilization and enforced a regime of terror which, though directed chiefly against the Jews, also inflicted heavy suffering on the Hungarians.

It was responsible for the deportation and death of tens of thousands of Jews. After the Soviet army liberated the whole of Hungary by early April 1945, Szalasi and his Arrow Cross ministers were brought to trial and executed.

9 Securitate: (in Romanian: DGSP - Directia generala a Securitatii Poporului) General Board of the People's Security. Its structure was established in 1948 with direct participation of Soviet advisors named by the NKVD.

The primary purpose was to 'defend all democratic accomplishments and to ensure the security of the Romanian Popular Republic against plots of both domestic and foreign enemies'. Its leader was Pantelimon Bondarenko, later known as Gheorghe Pintilie, a former NKVD agent.

It carried out the arrests, physical torture and brutal imprisonment of people who became undesirable for the leaders of the Romanian Communist Party, and also kept the life of ordinary civilians under strict observation.

10 Horthy, Miklos (1868-1957): Regent of Hungary from 1920 to 1944. Relying on the conservative plutocrats and the great landowners and Christian middle classes, he maintained a right-wing regime in interwar Hungary.

In foreign policy he tried to attain the revision of the Trianon Peace Treaty on the basis of which two thirds of Hungary's territory were seceded after WWI - which led to Hungary entering WWII as an ally of Germany and Italy.

When the Germans occupied Hungary in March 1944, Horthy was forced to appoint as Prime Minister the former ambassador of Hungary in Berlin, who organized the deportations of Hungarian Jews. On 15th October 1944 Horthy announced on the radio that he would ask the Allied Powers for truce.

The leader of the extreme right-wing fascist Arrow Cross Party, Ferenc Szalasi, supported by the German army, took over power. Horthy was detained in Germany and was later liberated by American troops. He moved to Portugal in 1949 and died there in 1957. 

11 Anti-Jewish laws in Hungary: Following similar legislation in Nazi Germany, Hungary enacted three Jewish laws in 1938, 1939 and 1941. The first law restricted the number of Jews in industrial and commercial enterprises, banks and in certain occupations, such as legal, medical and engineering professions, and journalism to 20% of the total number.

This law defined Jews on the basis of their religion, so those who converted before the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, as well as those who fought in World War I, and their widows and orphans were exempted from the law.

The second Jewish law introduced further restrictions, limiting the number of Jews in the above fields to 6%, prohibiting the employment of Jews completely in certain professions such as high school and university teaching, civil and municipal services, etc.

It also forbade Jews to buy or sell land and so forth. This law already defined Jews on more racial grounds in that it regarded baptized children that had at least one non-converted Jewish parent as Jewish. The third Jewish law prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews, and defined anyone who had at least one Jewish grandparent as Jewish.

12 Neolog Jewry: Following a Congress in 1868/69 in Budapest, where the Jewish community was supposed to discuss several issues on which the opinion of the traditionalists and the modernizers differed and which aimed at uniting Hungarian Jews, Hungarian Jewry was officially split into two (later three) communities, which all built up their own national community network.

The Neologs were the modernizers, who opposed the Orthodox on various questions. The third group, the sop-called Status Quo Ante advocated that the Jewish community was maintained the same as before the 1868/69 Congress.

13 Satmarer Hasidim: At the end of the 19th and in the first half of the 20th century Szatmarnemeti (today Satu Mare, in Romania) was one of the centers of the Transylvanian Hasid Jewry. When Yehuda Grunwald, who had a Hasidic attitude, was elected rabbi in 1898, Hasidism prevailed once and for all over the Orthodox congregation of Szatmarnemeti.

For this reason its opponents parted from the community in the same year, and established a separate status quo community. Around WWI the Orthodox/Hasid community of Szatmarnemeti was one of the largest and most influential congregations in Hungary.

Its significance wasn't diminished, not even after the change in ruling. Joel Teitelbaum, the member of the famous Teitelbaum rabbinic dynasty, former rabbi of Nagykaroly (today Carei, in Romania) was elected in 1934 as the religious leader of the Satmarer Hasidic community. He fulfilled this function until 1944.

After WWII the Satmarer Hasidim became known world-wide, partly due to public figures originating from their community..

14 Exemption from Deportation in North Transylvania: In March 1944, the Germans occupied Hungary and North Transylvania. After the occupation, the openly Nazi-friendly and anti-Semitic Dome Sztojay formed a government, and a series of anti-Jewish laws were introduced.

The law for ghettoization of Hungarian Jewry made exceptions in certain cases. The sphere of exemptions was defined in a decree on 10th May 1945.

The widows and children of those Jews who received a high commendation for bravery in World War I, or those widows and children of Jews who disappeared or died a hero's death in World War II as soldiers (not during 'forced labor' in the Labor Battalions) were exempted. Foreign Jewish citizens living in Hungary were also an exception. There were other modes of escaping deportation.

Rezso Kasztner, Zionist leader from Kolozsvar, exemplified this when he secured the release of 1300 Hungarian Jews (250 of which were Kolozsvar families) as a result of negotiations with Adolf Eichmann. The North-Transylvanian Jews' other means of escape was to flee to Romania, and hide there with Christian help.

Three doctors played a major role in hiding Kolozsvar Jews: Imre Haynal, Dezso Klimko and Dezso Miskolczy, offering help through their exaggerated diagnoses and extra-extended treatments. In spring 1944, the clinic of Imre Haynal hid and sheltered a number of Jews, the greater part of his 'intensive care' ward were Jews fleeing deportation, since the expulsion of the seriously ill was often overlooked by the authorities.

15 The Levente movement: Para-military youth organization in Hungary from 1928-1944, established with the aim of facilitating religious and national education as well as physical training. Boys between the age of 12 and 21 were eligible if they did not attend a school providing regular physical training, or did not join the army.

Since the Treaty of Versailles forbade Hungary to enforce the general obligations related to national defense, the Levente movement aimed at its substitution as well, as its members not only participated in sports activities and marches during weekends, but also practiced the use of weapons, under the guidance of demobilized officers on actual service or reserve officers. (The Law no. II of 1939 on National Defense made compulsory the national defense education and the joining of the movement.) (Source: Ignac Romsics: Magyarorszag tortenete a XX. szazadban/The History of Hungary in the 20th Century, Budapest, Osiris Publishing House, 2002, p. 181-182.)

16 Horthy declaration: On 15th October 1944, the governor of Hungary, Miklos Horthy, announced on the radio that he would ask for truce with the Allied Powers. The leader of the Arrow Cross party, Ferenc Szalasi, supported by the German army, which had already invaded Hungary in March 1944, took over power.

17 Siguranta Generala a Statului (The State General Security): (The State General Security): Created as a result of the Law for the organization of the Internal Affairs Ministry of 20thJune 1913, it was subordinated to the Department of Police and General Security. It was the main secret agency whose duty was to collect and use intelligence that was relevant for the protection of State security. It was composed of two departments: the Data Department (central body which gathered and synthesized intelligence) and the Special Security Brigades (territorial bodies in charge of field operations and counter-espionage). In 1929, the Security Police Department was restructured into two services: the Intelligence Service and the Foreigners Control Service.

18 Communist Party between the two World Wars in Romania: The Romanian Communist Party was formed on 11th May 1921, by laying the Socialist Party on communist bases, as a result of the decision taken at its convention. Its joining the 3rd International, which placed it under Moscow's orders, determined the response of the Romanian home security forces. The following conventions of the Party (Ploiesti, 1922; Vienna, 1924) maintained the affiliation with the Communist International and established that the fight to separate some Romanian provinces from the State territory was a priority. The Vienna convention chose Elek Koblos as secretary general. Until 1944, this position was held by Romanian citizens belonging to minority groups (Boris Stefanov, Stefan Foris) or by foreign citizens (Vitali Holostenko, Alexander Danieluc Stefanski), because it was believed that Romanians didn't have a strong revolutionary spirit and nationalistic inclinations. In 1924, the 'Marzescu law' was passed. The activities of the party became illegal, and its members went underground.

19 National Peasants’ Party: Political party created in 1926 by the fusion of the National Party of Transylvania and the Peasants' Party. It was in power, with some interruptions, from1928 and 1933. It was a moderately conservative and staunchly pro-Monarchy party. Its doctrine was essentially based on the enlightenment of peasantry, and on the reform of education in villages, where teachers were to become economic and social guides. Its purpose was to give the peasantry a class conscience. The National Peasants' Party governed Romania for a short period of time, between 1928-1931 and 1932-1933.

20 Purges of the Romanian Communist Party: The building-up of the communist system in Romania involved rivalry between different groups, respectively the "showdown" with each other.

Two main trends took shape within the Romanian Communist Party, which seized the power over the country, and the main struggles for power took place along these lines. One of the trends (the so-called Muscovite faction) consisted of those party members, who left for the Soviet Union between the two world wars, then returned to Romania after WWII (Anna Pauker, Laszlo Luka). The so-called local faction consisted of those who stayed in the country.

In 1948 Gheorghiu-Dej, the leader of the RCP, making use of the anti-Semitism spread out from the Soviet Union, started to purge his political adversaries, first of all the Muscovites. His first victim was Lucretiu Patrascanu, the charges brought against him being nationalism and rightist deviation; he was executed in 1954.

Patrascanu was followed by Laszlo Luka (he was sentenced to life imprisonment), then Anna Pauker was expelled from the Party. The purge of the Party aimed at not only the highest leadership, but it covered the circle of simple members as well.

21 Gheorghiu-Dej, Gheorghe (1901-1965): Leader of the Romanian Communist Party between 1952 and 1965. Originally an electrician and railway worker, he was imprisoned in 1933 and became the underground leader of all imprisoned communists. He was prime minister between 1952-55 and first secretary of the Communist Party between 1945-1953 and from 1955 until his death. In his later years, he led a policy that drifted away from the directive in Moscow, keeping the Stalinist system untouched by the Krushchevian reforms.

22 Ana Pauker – Vasile Luca – Teohari Georgescu group: After 1945 there were two major groupings in the Romanian communist leadership: the Muscovites led by Ana Pauker, and the former illegal communists led by Gheorghe Dej.

Ana Pauker arrived in Romania the day after the entry of the Soviet army as the leader of the group of communists returning from Moscow; the Muscovites were the major political rivals of Gheorghe Dej. As a result of their rivalry, three out of the four members of the Political Secretariat of the Central Committee of the Romanian Communist Party were convicted on trumped-up charges in show trials in 1952.

The anti-Semitic campaign launched by Stalin in 1952, which also spread over to Romania, created a good opportunity to launch such a trial - both Luca and Pauker were of Jewish origin. Georgescu was executed. Luca was also sentenced to death but the sentence was changed to lifetime forced labor. He died in prison in 1960. Pauker was released after Stalin's death and lived in internal exile until her death.

23 Rajk, Laszlo (1909-1949): Hungarian communist politician, Minister of the Interior from 1946 to 1948 and Foreign Minister from 1948 to 1949. During his period as Minister of the Interior many religious, national and democratic institutions and organizations labeled as fascist and reactionary groups were banned or dissolved.

He took an active part in launching the first show trials and he pitilessly fought against all alleged and real anti-Stalinist forces, but finally became a victim of his own machinery.

He was arrested on false charges in 1949 during the purges initiated by Stalin's anti-Tito campaign. He was accused of crime against the state and treason, more precisely of having been a secret agent in the 1930s. He was sentenced to death and executed in 1949. His show trial was given much publicity throughout the soviet block. In March 1956 Rajk was officially rehabilitated.

24 Rajk trial: Laszlo Rajk, Hungarian communist politician, Minister of the Interior (1946-48) and Foreign Minister (1948-49), was arrested on false charges in 1949 in the purges initiated by Stalin's anti-Tito campaign.

He was accused of crime against the state and treason (of having been a secret agent in the 1930s), sentenced to death and executed. His show trial was given much publicity throughout the Soviet block. In March 1956 he was officially rehabilitated.

25 Ceausescu, Nicolae (1918-1989): Communist head of Romania between 1965 and 1989. He followed a policy of nationalism and non-intervention into the internal affairs of other countries.

The internal political, economic and social situation was marked by the cult of his personality, as well as by terror, institutionalized by the Securitate, the Romanian political police. The Ceausescu regime was marked by disastrous economic schemes and became increasingly repressive and corrupt.

There were frequent food shortages, lack of electricity and heating, which made everyday life unbearable. In December 1989 a popular uprising, joined by the army, led to the arrest and execution of both Ceausescu and his wife, Elena, who had been deputy Prime Minister since 1980.

26 Romanian Revolution of 1989: In December 1989, a revolt in Romania deposed the communist dictator Ceausescu. Anti-government violence started in Timisoara and spread to other cities.

When army units joined the uprising, Ceausescu fled, but he was captured and executed on 25th December along with his wife. A provisional government was established, with Ion Iliescu, a former Communist Party official, as president. In the elections of May 1990 Iliescu won the presidency and his party, the Democratic National Salvation Front, obtained an overwhelming majority in the legislature.

27 Creation of the State of Israel: From 1917 Palestine was a British mandate. Also in 1917 the Balfour Declaration was published, which supported the idea of the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Throughout the interwar period, Jews were migrating to Palestine, which caused the conflict with the local Arabs to escalate.

On the other hand, British restrictions on immigration sparked increasing opposition to the mandate powers. Immediately after World War II there were increasing numbers of terrorist attacks designed to force Britain to recognize the right of the Jews to their own state. These aspirations provoked the hostile reaction of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states.

In February 1947 the British foreign minister Ernest Bevin ceded the Palestinian mandate to the UN, which took the decision to divide Palestine into a Jewish section and an Arab section and to create an independent Jewish state.

On 14th May 1948 David Ben Gurion proclaimed the creation of the State of Israel. It was recognized immediately by the US and the USSR. On the following day the armies of Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon attacked Israel, starting a war that continued, with intermissions, until the beginning of 1949 and ended in a truce.

28 Herzl, Theodor (1860-1904): Hungarian-born Jewish playwright, journalist and founder of the World Zionist Organization (WZO). His thought of realizing the idea of political Zionism was inspired by among other things the so-called Dreyfus affair.

In the polemical essay The Jewish State (Der Judenstaat, 1896) he declares that Jews aren't only a community of believers, but also a nation with the right to its own territory and state. He was of the opinion that in the anti-Jewish mood extant in Europe, it was not possible to solve the Jewish question via either civic emancipation or cultural assimilation.

After a significant diplomatic effort he succeeded in the calling of the 1st International Jewish Congress in Basil on 29-31st August 1897.

The congress accepted the "Basel Program" and elected Herzl as its first president. Herzl wasn't the first to long for the return of the Jews to Palestine. He was, however, able to not only support the idea, but also to promote it politically; without his efforts the creation of the new state of Israel in the Palestine on 14th May 1948 would not have been possible.

Theodor Herzl died in 1904 at the age of 44 and was buried in a Jewish cemetery in Vienna. In 1949 his remains were transported to Jerusalem, where they were laid to rest on a mountain that today carries his name (Mount Herzl).

29 Ben Gurion Dawid (real name Dawid Grin, 1886-1973): Zionist leader, Israeli politician, and the first Prime Minister of the state. He was born in Poland. Since 1906 he lived in Palestine. He was the leader of the Poalei Zion party, co-founder of the He-Chalutz youth organization, founder of the Achdut ha-Awoda party and the Histadrut trade union congress. Since 1933 he was a member of the Jewish Agency executive committee (in the British mandate Palestine), and since 1935-1948 its chair.

He opposed the Revisionist movement within Zionists. After the 1939 announcement of the so-called White Book by the British authorities, limiting the Jewish immigration to Palestine, he supported the development of the Jewish self-defense forces Haganah and illegal immigration. He fought in the 1948 war.

On May 14, 1948 he proclaimed the creation of the state Israel. He was Prime Minister and Defense Minister until 1953. After a two-year withdrawal from politics he returned and became Prime Minister once more. In 1965 he became the leader of the new party Rafi (Israeli Labor List) but lost the elections. In 1969 he retired from politics.

Nussbaum Szilvia

Életrajz

A hetvenes éveiben járó Brüll Szilvia kissé telt, lassú mozgású idős hölgy. Nagyon csendes és szűkszavú teremtés. Nehezen nyílik meg az idegeneknek, de ha megbarátkozik, kedves velük. Egészségi állapota miatt ritkán hagyja el a házat, inkább otthon ül, tévét néz, olvasgat. Ha vendég jön a házhoz, főként a férje foglalkozik velük. Szilvia inkább visszavonul csendesen a szobájába.

[Nussbaum Szilvia nem ismerte személyesen a nagyszüleit, ezért ismeretei nagyon hiányosak.] Az anyai nagyapám, Nothi Bernát [1862–1940-es évek] jegyző volt egy máramarosi faluban. [1910-ben a mintegy 66 ezer főnyi máramarosi zsidóságnak mindössze 1,9%-a dolgozott állami szolgálatban, ill. értelmiségi pályákon – A szerk.] A falu neve a dokumentumok szerint Valea Chioarului, magyarul Kővárgara.] A nagymamát úgy hívták, hogy Braun Fáni. Ő 14 évesen ment férjhez, ezt az anyám mondta. Falusi életet éltek: volt tehenük meg ilyesmi. Igen-igen vallásosak voltak. A nagyapa sok gyereket tanított, vallásórákat tartott. Még Kolozsváron is volt, aki emlékezett rá [aki abból a faluból származott.] Híres ember volt ott a községben. A nagymama is vallásos volt, kóser háztartása volt. Biztos volt parókája, abban az időben nem lehetett másképp. A vallást szigorúan betartották, legalábbis a falusi közösségekben. Másra nem emlékszem. Nem tudom, hogy miért, de az 1920-as évek elején hirtelen a családból a gyerekek nagy része elindult Izraelbe [lásd: 1919-1923 közötti kivándorlási hullám]. Én a mi családunkról tudok, de lehet, hogy mások is a faluból. Édesanyám itt maradt, és férjhez ment.

Heten voltak testvérek, egy meghalt. Azt tudom, hogy egy fiú volt: Márton, ő volt a legnagyobb testvér. A fiú Izraelben élt egy időben, majd kiment Amerikába, ahol sokáig élt, de nem tudom, hogy mivel foglalkozott. Majd ismét visszament Izraelbe. 1985-ben láttam őt Izraelben. Akkor már öreg volt. Aggmenházban élt, elég normális körülmények között, és teljes szellemi frissességben. Nem tudom pontosan, hogy mikor, de néhány évre rá meghalt. A többi testvér lány volt: volt egy Nusi nevű, egy Blanka. Mind kimentek Izraelbe. Kettő maradt itt csak. Ez azt jelenti, hogy rengeteg rokon van, de én senkit nem ismertem, soha nem láttam, csak tudtam róluk, egészen nyugdíjas koromig, amikor már lehetett utazni, és lehetett menni Izraelbe. [1989 után lehetett korlátozás nélkül menni látogatóba külföldre.] Azok gyerekeivel 60 évesen találkoztunk először. Ők már ott születtek, nem tudnak csak ivritül. Már nincs meg a szülők magyar nyelvtudása. Különben is a szülők legtöbbször nem is magyarul beszéltek, hanem jiddis nyelven, főleg a [máramarosi] falusiak. Már a közvetlen unokatestvérek sem tudnak magyarul, nem beszélve azok gyerekeiről és unokáiról.

Az édesanyám, Nothi Zsófia 1900-ban született, ő volt a legkisebb, pár elemije volt. Lehetett olyan 18-19 éves, amikor Kolozsvárra került. Gondolom, a sok gyerek miatt jött el faluról. Valami rokona kellett legyen Kolozsváron, mert nem engedték volna, hogy csak úgy az ismeretlenbe menjen Kolozsvárra. Egy gyárban dolgozott, de nem tudom, mit, nem tudok semmi mást. Eltelt egy idő, és megismerkedett Brüll Izsákkal. Volt közöttük hat év korkülönbség. Ő 23 éves korában ment férjhez, miután elmentek a testvérei Izraelbe. Azután háziasszony volt.

Az apai nagyszülőkről csak annyit tudtam, hogy Bánffyhunyadról származnak, ott laktak, de pontosan nem tudom. Az apai nagyapát Brüll Lőrincnek hívták. Nem hiszem, hogy vallásos lett volna. Valahol volt egy olyan fényképe, hogy hajadonfőtt van lefényképezve a nagyapám, és rövid szakálla volt. De kohénita volt, mert így van a sírnál ráírva. Nem tudom, hogy mivel foglalkoztak. Nem mondta nekem senki. Olyan hamar meghaltak. Annyit tudok, hogy elváltak, és Friedman Záli, az apai nagyanyám újra férjhez ment, és elköltözött Bánffyhunyadról. Az új férj, Szabó ugyancsak zsidó volt.

Volt két közös gyerekük az apai nagyszülőknek: Izsák, az édesapám és Helén – akik az apával maradtak. Volt még más gyerekük is, akiket Záli magával vitt válás után az új férjhez. Lehet, nagy korkülönbségek is voltak a gyerekek között. Feltételezem, a kisebb gyerekek: Rózsi, Herman, Farkas, akiket magával vitt, azok felvehették az új férjnek a nevét, a Szabót. De semmi későbbi kapcsolatról nem tudok a két család között. Herman Amerikába ment. Farkas Kolozsváron élt, deportálták.

Az apám, Brüll Izsák 1894-ben született Bánffyhunyadon. Sovány, alacsonyabb termetű volt. 1913–1914-ben elvégezte az Iparművészeti Iskolát Bánffyhunyadon, és utána háborúba ment.[Ebben az időszakban még nem voltak szakközépiskolák. Valószínűleg iparművészeti iskoláról van szó, ahova négy középiskolai osztályvagy a négy polgári iskola elvégzése után lehetett felvételi vizsga letétele után bekerülni. Az oktatás 6 évig tartott. – A szerk.] Nem beszélt azokról az évekről, amikor besorozták katonának. Nem beszélt arról sem, amikor megszökött az orosz fogságból, az utazásairól sem. Nem tartotta a kapcsolatot a szüleivel, csak küldött egy-egy fényképet magáról. Így maradtak meg a családban a fényképek, amiket a halála után megtaláltunk. 1914-től az 1920-as évekig csak annyit lehet tudni az életéről, amennyit ki tudtunk következtetni ezekből a papírjaiból, és hogy kapcsolatba került a kerámiával

Fiatalon elkerült Budapestre. Először az Ipari és Mezőgazdasági iskolába járt Budapesten. [Ilyen nevű iskola nem létezett. A későbbi életútból következtetve talán felső ipariskolába járt Budapesten vagy a budapesti állami mechanikai és elektromosipari szakiskola kétéves felső tagozatára. – A szerk.] Aztán esztergályos volt, és utána kerámiával foglalkozott. [Mestervizsgázott porcelángyártásból Nussbaum Szilvia férje szerint.] Pesten a Zsolnay meg ehhez hasonló gyáraknál volt, de csak hogy megtanulja a mesterséget. [Zsolnay Vilmos (1828–1900) a pécsi majolika- és porcelángyár vezetője és tulajdonosa volt. Pesten nem volt Zsolnay-gyár. – A szerk.] Dolgozott egy Vas Kálmán nevű mechanikus műhelyében is. Svájcban is volt, ott is tanult kerámiát. Utána visszajött Kolozsvárra, és 1935-ig az Irisnél [a kolozsvári porcelángyárban] volt. Valamilyen mechanikai vonalon került be a kolozsvári porcelángyárba, éppen az induláskor. Értelmes és ügyes, rendkívül tanulékony és talpraesett ember volt. A megindult porcelángyár mechanikusaként a jövőt látta ebben a gyárban. Az 1920-as években csinálták a gyárat, román gyár volt, tehát helyi tőke. Sok német mérnököt hoztak Németországból, hogy irányítsák a porcelángyárat. Ezek a mérnökök szándékosan igyekeztek nem betanítani a helybeli alkalmazottakat. Azért nem, mert sokkal magasabb fizetést kaptak, mint Németországban. Senki nem megy el Németországból Kolozsvárra – egy teljesen idegen helyre – szórakozásból, hacsak nem egy jobb fizetésért. Nagyon jól tudták azt, hogy minél kevésbé tanítják meg az embereket, annál több ideig tart az ő magas fizetésük. Apám ekkor, úgymond, ellopta a mesterséget, megtanulta a porcelángyártást. Lassacskán felnőtte magát a kolozsvári porcelángyárban mint technikai szakember.

Ebben a gyárban lassacskán áttért a mechanikai részről a porcelángyártási részre, és feltornázta magát mesterré, szakértővé, olyannyira, hogy felfigyelt rá és megszólította őt egy kapitalista, egy Iliescu nevű. Neki bankja volt és zálogháza, a mai Transilvania Bank helyén, ahol bank volt régen is. Ennek elég pénze volt ahhoz, hogy azt mondja: „Jöjjön Tordára, mert én építek egy porcelángyárat.” És magas fizetést ígért. Ez a megegyezés odáig ment, hogy apám azt mondta, jól van. 1935-ben ment át Tordára, akkor csinálták a gyárat. Egy prömier [újdonság] volt ez a porcelángyár-építés. Romániában első esetben szándékoztak olyan gyárat építeni, amelyik nem szénnel, nem fával, nem koksszal, hanem gázzal működik. Akkor Kolozsváron még nem volt gáz, csak 1945-ben, a világháború után vezették be a gázt. Tordán volt már gáz a két világháború között. Ez a kapitalista arra számított, hogyha sikerül a terve, akkor sokkal olcsóbban tudja majd üzemeltetni a gyárat gázzal, mint ha hozatná a kokszot. Ez egy nagy rizikó volt Izsák részéről, hogy elvállalta, mert nem volt még ilyen. Belebukhatott volna teljes egészében. Azt kellett kikísérleteznie, hogy hogyan reagál a porcelán a gázra, ugyanis nem volt leírása, nem csináltak még ilyent. Tulajdonképpen az ő tervei alapján építették fel a tordai porcelángyárat és a kísérleti gázkályhákat, a kemencéket.

A lakásunk közvetlenül a gyár mellett volt, úgyhogy nem is kellett kimenjen az utcára, hanem a kerítést átvágták, és a lakás udvaráról bement a gyárba. Bevezették a telefont is. A gyár irodatelefonja a lakáson volt, a gyárból akár éjjel két órakor is telefonálhattak: „Brüll bácsi, tessék bejönni, mert a kemencében túl piros a tűz.” Benne élt a gyárban, csak a gyár érdekelte. A hivatalos kinevezése: „conducator technic al uzinei” [a gyár technikai vezetője]. Ő irányította technikailag az egész gyárat. Az egyik nagy eredménye a kemencék gázra való átállítása. A másik nagy eredménye – ami még szintén nem volt Romániában – az az elektrokeramika. A gyár átállt a porcelánedények készítése helyett az elektroporcelánra. A magasfeszültségű izolátorok ugyancsak porcelánból vannak, és azt kellett kikísérleteznie. Közben kikísérletezte a rózsaszín porcelán előállításának módját. A már régen beindított és ismert kolozsvári [Iris porcelán] gyárat le tudta pipálni sok szempontból.

Az édesapám nem volt vallásos, szombaton is dolgozott, de nagyünnepekkor elment templomba, az anyám miatt. Az édesanyámnak kóser háztartása volt. Nagyon tartotta a vallást, annyira, hogy nem evett volna disznóhúst semmiképp. Ha nem lett volna más, akkor sem evett volna. De később mi, a többi családtag ettünk, de ő soha nem evett. Hosszúnap [lásd: Jom Kipur] öregkorában is, nem létezett, hogy ne böjtöljön. Rosszul lett volna, ha evett volna. Édesanyám pénteken szokott gyertyát gyújtani. Mindig csinált nekünk kocsonyás halat, még csólentet, libamájat és töltött káposztát [A töltött káposzta liba- és marhahús fölhasználásával készült. – A szerk.] is csinált. Ők nem jártak zsidó társaságba, nem barátkoztak zsidókkal. Javarészt németek között voltak – munkatársak és beosztottak –, mert azok voltak a gyárban. Rendeztek estéket, meghívták a kollégákat. Jóban volt az anyám egy német családdal, akiknek nem volt gyerekük. Tudták, hogy zsidók vagyunk, de nem zavarta őket. Akkor nem volt különbség, nem csináltak problémát a nemzetiségi kérdésből.

Az édesanyám nagyon ügyes volt és nagyon merész, nem félt az élet nehézségeitől. Sokat dolgozott, nagyon sokáig bírta a házimunkát. Még 86 éves korában nagymosást rendezett. Nem panaszkodott soha. Nem volt sok ideje, nem nagyon foglalkozott velünk. Sok bejárónőnk volt, egy-egy több ideig volt. Volt egy magyar lány is – Lőrinci Etel –, aki most itt él Kolozsváron. Tulajdonképpen ott lakott nálunk, velünk nevelkedett. 13 éves korában hozta az anyja Tordára, hogy vegyük be cselédnek. Még voltak más segítők is, de nem emlékszem rájuk. A nagynéném, Brüll Helén, az apám húga vigyázott ránk a legtöbbet. Sokkal fiatalabb volt, mint az apám. Őt nagyon szerettük. Kolozsvárról gyakran jött Tordára, és vigyázott ránk. Odatett, kicsi mosásokat csináltunk neki, játszott velünk, meg horgolt ruhákat nekünk. Mindennel foglalkozott, nagyon ügyes volt. Ő nem volt akkor férjnél, és aztán deportálták. Visszajött a deportálásból, és akkor férjhez ment. Talán 1982-ben Izraelbe ment.

Én Kolozsváron születtem 1929-ben, és 1935-ben Tordára költöztünk. Nem emlékszem már, mit csináltunk gyerekekként, biztosan játszottunk. Volt egy barátnőm, Schlosser Ági, akihez mindig elmentem, pedig a város másik végében lakott. Autóbusszal mentem hozzá mindig, amikor mentem. Egyidősök voltunk, annak az apja is keramikus volt. Ő szépen tudott rajzolni, s mindig rajzolt. Most Izraelben van, de már nem tartjuk a kapcsolatot. Vagy pedig mentünk a vízpartra. Nagyon vallásos voltam gyerekkoromban. Volt egy unokatestvérem, Edit, aki bebeszélte nekem, hogy ha három vétked van, akkor nem jutsz a Paradicsomba. Akkor elképzeltem, hogy mennyi bűnt csinálok, és nagyon vallásos lettem. Képes lettem volna levágatni a hajamat, hogy parókát csináljanak. Ekkor kilenc-tíz éves voltam.

Öt év különbség volt a testvérem és közöttem. Brüll Lőrincnek hívták, ő is Kolozsváron született. A bátyám hegedült, és akkor nagyon megtetszett. Hét-nyolc éves korban már hegedülni tanultam magántanárnőnél. Zsidó nő volt, úgy hívták, hogy László Matild. Ő volt Tordán az egyetlen, tehát egy kisváros egyedüli hegedűtanárnője. Kedvtelésből tartott órákat. Gazdag nő volt, több helyen lakott. Volt egy háza a főtéren, oda jártam órákra. Szép lakása volt. Tömbházuk is volt. Nem voltak vallásosak. A férje bankár volt, valami Lászlónak hívták. A lánya hegedűművésznő volt. Én abban a részében laktam a városnak, ahol a gyárak voltak – a külvárosban –, s a központba jártam hegedűórákra, ami elég nagy távolság volt. Gyalog jártam, s mindig vittem magammal a hegedűt. Mikor mentem órára, az volt az érzésem, hogy nem tart eleget, hogy még ülnék ott. Zsidó dallamokat nem tanított, csak klasszikus darabokat. Még játszottam egy moziteremben is, zongorakísérettel, közönség előtt. (Nem a mozielőadások alatt, csak abban az épületben.) A mozinak nem volt neve, most színház. Ez úgy 1940-ben volt, tíz éves lehetem.

A gyerekkori játszótársaim a legtöbben zsidók voltak – a két világháború között –, ameddig nem jártam gimnáziumba. Én nem járhattam gimnáziumba 1940 és 1945 között [lásd: zsidó statutum Romániában], de jártam magánúton, és Temesvárra s Bukarestbe a Zsidó Gimnáziumba vizsgázni. Csak annyi volt, hogy Zsidó Gimnázium volt, és megengedték, hogy vizsgázzunk. Mert itt, Tordán nem lehetett a rasszista törvények miatt. [Torda 1940 és 1944 között Romániához tartozott, a magyar-román határ kb. 20 km-re feküdt tőle. – A szerk.] Már alig vártam, hogy menjek vizsgázni, hogy ne veszítsem el az éveket. Rendre jöttek az iskolaévek. Otthon megvoltak a könyvek, emlékszem, biztos lehetett kapni az üzletben. Magántanuló voltam, mindig volt valaki, aki segítsen. Az egyikre emlékszem, úgy hívták, hogy Zozó. Ez egy zsidó patikusnő volt, idősebb volt nálam. Mindenre tanított, például számtanra. A rabbi lánya – nem tudom, hogy hívták – tanított héberül, nagyon jól tudott héberül. Biztos az apjától tanult. Idősebb volt valamivel, mint mi, s nagyon kulturált volt. Minden héten egyszer vagy kétszer tanított, volt neki egy tankönyve. Imádságokat nem tanított, mi a nyelv miatt mentünk, mert kellett vizsgáznunk héberből. Kellett rajzból is vizsgázni, történelemből, ugyanabból, amit a többiek tanultak. Külön vizsgát szerveztek a magántanulóknak. A vizsgázáskor bejött az összes zsidó gimnazista diák, a tanulók, és mindegyik segíteni akart, hogy tudjam leírni, amit kérnek a tanárok. Szigorú volt az iskola, nem tudtunk annyit, amennyit követeltek a vizsgán. Elég engedékenyek voltak a tanárok, mert átmentünk, az volt a fontos. Az első és második gimnáziumi vizsgákat Bukarestben tettem le, a harmadikat és negyediket Temesváron, nem tudom, miért. Tordáról egy lány volt még vizsgázni, Adonyi Jutka. Engem a bátyám vitt vizsgázni, ő [Jutka] külön ment, mert volt ott Temesváron nagynénje. Bukarestben csak én voltam vizsgázni. Mindig elkísért a bátyám, amikor mentem. Személyvonattal mentünk, nagyon hosszú volt az út, tizenhárom órát mentünk Temesvárig. És Bukarestig is hosszú volt az út. Gőzmozdonyok voltak, s nagyon lassan ment.

Nálunk más volt az 1930-as évek végén [lásd: a zsidók sorsa Észak-és Dél-Erdélyben], mert hagyták az apámat dolgozni, mert szükség volt rá. Az édesapám nagyon szorgalmas volt, és csak a gyárnak élt. Nagyon szigorú volt a munkásokkal, és mindig szidta őket, hogy jobban dolgozzanak, de közben tartott hozzájuk. Nagyon igazságos volt és őszinte. Mindig harcolt a munkások érdekeiért. Nem kért magának nagyobb fizetést, inkább a munkásoknak. Nagyon szerény volt, annyira, hogy a gyáros kellett könyörögjön, hogy emeljék fel a fizetését. Mindig azt mondta – nem tudott jól románul, soha nem tanult meg –, hogy „deti la muncitori, nu mie” [a munkásoknak adjanak, ne nekem]. Nem akart különválni a munkásoktól, nem akarta, hogy őt külön fizessék. Mindig úgy mondták neki, hogy „domnul conducator” [vezető úr]. A gyáros már nem tudta, mit csináljon vele, hogy elfogadjon valamit, akkor vett neki egy házat, amit el is vettek az államosításkor, bár nem volt joguk elvenni.

Societatea Anonima – ez volt a fedőneve a gyárnak. Iliescunak, a gyártulajdonosnak muszáj volt felvennie egy Iaşiból származó mérnöknőt – úgy hívták, Elena Holban –, mert nem tarthatta az édesapámat, hogy ő [egy zsidó] legyen a fő conducator. A nő nem is értett a porcelángyártáshoz, kémikus volt, de papíron ő helyettesítette az apámat, aki dolgozott tovább. Nálunk is lakott, kapott egy szobát. Nem volt más zsidó munkás a gyárban apámon kívül. Még a bátyám dolgozott ott egy időben, mikor voltak a zsidóellenes dolgok, hogy ne vigyék el munkaszolgálatra, mert akkor vitték Transznisztriába a zsidókat. Csak Tordán ment munkára munkaszolgálat gyanánt. Egyszóval, nem éreztük a második világháborút megelőző megszorításokat. [Tordáról, mivel Románia fennhatósága alá tartozott, nem deportálták a zsidókat. – A szerk.]

Románia 1944. augusztus 23-án átállt a szövetségesekhez. Ez azt jelentette, hogy a hirtelen átállás után a német csapatok erősítésért küldtek, a magyar csapatokkal együtt jöttek előre, s így foglalták el Tordát. Elfoglalták a gyárat is, elfoglaltak mindent, ami Romániához tartozott, s tovább is mentek. Közben a másik oldalról az oroszok és az átállt románok jöttek előre. Így lett Torda is egy frontvonal.

A háború vége fele bejöttek a magyarok és a németek, s mi a gyár pincéjébe kerültünk, oda bújtunk. Édesanyám a pincéből feljött a lépcsőn valamiért, s látta, hogy viszik a vázát, a mi vázánkat meg a szőnyeget. Mindent hordtak el a házból, s mindezt láttuk, mert közvetlenül a gyár mellett laktunk. A helybeliek s a katonák hordták el a dolgokat. S elvitték a hegedűmet, arra is emlékszem. A német és a magyar katonák még disznót is vágtak a szoba közepén. S találtak imakönyvet a házban, és bejöttek a pincébe, és kérdezték, ha van zsidó, adják ki azonnal. Mi reszkettünk, hogy nehogy valaki eláruljon minket. A többiek mind magyarok meg románok voltak, csak mi voltunk zsidók. Oda menekültek a szomszédból az emberek. Háború volt, munkások nem voltak, nem dolgozott senki akkor a gyárban. Szóval, a németek ott főztek, a gyári kályhákban kenyeret sütöttek. Az egyik magyar mondta, hogy menjünk velük, ha meg akarunk szabadulni – mert jönnek az oroszok –, s elvisznek Debrecenbe. Szóval nem tudta senki, hogy mi zsidók vagyunk. Ha tudták volna, megöltek volna azonnal.

A lakosok közül a legtöbben elmentek onnan, Tordáról. Egy menekülési időszak volt a háború, a lövések elől. Mi nem akkor mentünk el. Mikor bejöttek az oroszok, csak akkor mentünk el. Addig a gyárban, a pincében voltunk. Épp Torda mellett volt a nagy harc, az oroszok a németekkel. Ekkor egy része a lakosságnak elmenekült, az ottani falukba. Az Érchegység falvaiba próbáltak menekülni, és gyalog mentek. Az első napokban, amikor lövöldözés volt, nyilvánvalóan lementek a pincékbe, és néhány nap után, amikor a front közeledett, akkor menekültek a falvakba, amik épp Torda mellett vannak.

Mikor bejöttek az oroszok, mondták, lesz egy nagy támadás. Mi el voltunk bújva egy ajtó mögött, nem tudták, hogy nők is vannak, vagy hogy kik, hányan. És akkor mind kivonultunk, és elindultunk gyalog, és egész messzire gyalogoltunk. Az apám nem akart jönni, hogy a gyárat mentse, hogy nehogy valami történjen a gyárral. Ott maradt Iliescuval, védték a gyárat, féltek, hogy az oroszok ráteszik a kezüket. Hagyott minket egyedül menni. Én az édesanyámmal egy csomó kilométert mentem. Egy Tordához közel eső faluba menekültünk: Sinfalvára, románul Cornesti. A bátyám máshol volt. Ő egy időben utecista [Uniunea Tinerilor Comunisti, azaz Kommunista Ifjú Szövetség tagja] volt. Az illegális Kommunista Ifjúsági Szövetségnek szimpatizánsa volt, s ennek keretében bizonyos feladatokat is elvégzett, de nem volt tag. A hegyekbe menekült, mert ott voltak az orosz partizánok. Aztán nagy nehezen találkoztunk vele, mert eljött ő is oda, ahova mi menekültünk. Fel kellett vigyük a padlásra, mert keresték az ilyen „transfugokat” [szökevényeket], szóval, akik nem mentek a háborúba. Aztán eljött értünk az édesapám a faluba. Mikor felszabadult Torda, visszajöttünk. A lakás ki volt rabolva. Egy bombaféle az ablakon keresztül a házba csapódott, volt egy zongora az egyik szobában, s azt telitalálat érte. A lakás többi része épen megmaradt. Mikor vége lett a háborúnak, 1945-ben, behoztam azt az időt, és rendesen tudtam folytatni a negyedik gimnáziumot. Akkor már lehetett menni gimnáziumba.

Lőrincnek [aki gyakran járt Temesvárra a vizsgái miatt] volt egy zsidó barátnője Temesváron, akinek udvarolt. Kohn Editnek hívták, most Izraelben van, férjhez ment egy orvoshoz. 1945-ben nem volt szabad 6 óra után kimenni az utcára, mert összetűzések voltak az ottani német és orosz katonák között. De Lőrinc mégis kiszaladt egy percre, mert a szomszédban lakott a lány, s azon nyomban lelőtték. Aztán jöttek szólni, hogy menjenek gyorsan, mert az illető, aki itt volt, innen jött ki, a földön hever. Nagyon megviselte ez a dolog az egész családot.

A gyár szerencsére nem volt nagyon tönkretéve, s folytatódott a tevékenység. Rögtön a háború után, a tisztázódott helyzetben, amikor román fennhatóság alá került Erdély, ugyanúgy vezető helyen maradt apám. Nagyon sok porcelánkiállítást csinált. Ugyanazzal a „conducator technic” címmel maradt egészen az államosításig. Aztán 1948-ban nacionalizálták, államosították a gyárat, s akkor kitették Iliescut. Az édesapám ott maradt. Már nem nagyon tetszettek neki a megváltozott munkakörülmények, mert kineveztek igazgatókat, akiknek halvány sejtelmük sem volt a porcelángyártásról, és mégis ők kezdtek dirigálni. Utána én Kolozsvárra kerültem a konzervatóriumba, s édesapám is ide akart jönni. De akkor egyik városból a másikba nem nagyon engedtek átköltözni. Nagy nehezen mégis elintézte, és visszakerült a kolozsvári gyárba, de már nem mint conducator [vezető], hanem kisebb állást kapott. Minőségi ellenőr beosztást kapott, és onnan is ment nyugdíjba. Nagyon sokat írtak róla az újságokban.

Annak ellenére, hogy Kolozsvárra jött, minden öt évben megtartották a születésnapját, együtt a kolozsvári és tordai porcelángyár munkaközössége. Annyira szerették, hogy együttes banketteket rendeztek a születésnapja tiszteletére. Ez ritkán fordult elő egy vezető beosztású emberrel, általában egy-két évre rá már elfelejtik az embert. Egészen 85 éves koráig – az volt az utolsó – rendeztek bankettet a tiszteletére, mivel kitűnő szakember volt.

Nussbaum Lászlóval, a férjemmel ismertük egymást már az óvodában és az elemiben is, mint egy fiúcska és egy kislány. De nem volt egy társaságunk, nem játszottunk együtt. Az elemiben mindig egyforma esőkabátunk volt, az mindig eszembe jut. Babos volt, és szégyelltem bemenni az osztályba, hogy egyforma az esőkabátunk. Mikor vége lett a háborúnak, akkor visszakerültünk Tordára. [Nussbaum László 16 éves gyerekként szabadult a buchenwaldi koncentrációs táborból. Kolozsváron nem maradt senkije, így Tordára ment, ahol még élt egy nagynénje és egy nagybátyja.] Körülbelül hatodikos gimnazista voltam, és ő is bejárt a gimnáziumba, és akkor ismerkedtünk meg újból. S jól tudott románul. Aztán mindig jött hozzánk. [Naphosszat elhallgatta, amint Brüll Szilvia gyakorolt hegedűn.] Az édesanyám nagyon szerette őt, mert a bátyámat helyettesítette, a fiának tekintette. Én nem ismertem sem a nagyapját, sem a nagyanyját, csak a nagybátyját és a nagynénjét, mert a nagynénje, Weinberger Zita, Nussbaum László édesanyjának a húga zongoratanárnő volt. Szóval ő ügyvéd volt tulajdonképpen, de tanított zongorázni. Én hegedültem, és ő kísért. Nem volt vele közös előadásom, otthon kísért a zongorán. Néha elmentem hozzá, és valamiket csak úgy játszottunk. Aztán mindketten Kolozsvárra mentünk tanulni, ő járt az egyetemre s én a konzervatóriumba.

Másodéves voltam 1952-ben, akkor házasodtunk össze, László már befejezte az egyetemet, és asszisztens volt az egyetemen. Rabbi nem volt az esküvőnkön, csak a polgármester adott össze. A Művész mozi épületének első emeletén laktunk egy négyszobás lakásban, ahol a négy szobában négy család lakott. Közös konyha, közös kamra. Ahol voltunk, ott egy zsidó család volt, egy magyar s két román. Ezek a családok bejöttek vidékről Kolozsvárra, mert itt akartak valamit dolgozni.

Nussbaum Szilvia férje meséli: „Amikor Szilvia szülei úgy 1953-1954 körül, tehát a nyugdíjkor időszakában visszaköltöztek Kolozsvárra – akkor építettek munkásotthont, tömbházakat a kolozsvári porcelángyár közelében –, kaptak egy kicsike kétszobás lakást. Közben építeni kezdtek a munkásoknak tömbházakat, többek között ezt az épületet is, ahol most lakunk. Akkor úgy volt, hogy a lakásokat a különböző gyárak kapták meg, a gyárak vezetői állapították meg, nem pedig a polgármesteri hivatal, hogy kinek adják a munkások közül. A gyárnak volt listája az esedékesekről, tehát a gyár intézte el a lakást a munkásainak. Akkor én elmentem az egyik igazgatóhoz, s úgy kaptuk ezt a lakást. Azt a lakást ajánlottam fel, ahol Szilvia szülei laktak és a miénket. S akkor úgy összeköltöztünk. A jelenlegi, harmadik lakásban öten voltunk. Ez az 1960-as évek elején volt. Mind a ketten dolgoztunk, mit csináljunk egy kisgyerekkel, a fiunkkal? S gyakorlatilag éveken át az anyósom vigyázott rá. Az apósomék addig ott, a gyártelepen laktak. Akkor ez egy nagy megoldás volt, amihez hozzájárult még az, hogy a közös háztartásban az anyósom főzött. A feleségemnek nagyon nehéz volt, a filharmóniánál volt, turnékra mentek, koncerteket rendeztek, nem volt ideje főzni. Az anyósom háziasszony volt, s egy normális életet teremtett. Közösen éltünk a lakásban: az egyik szobában laktak ők ketten, a fiam másik szobában, s mi a harmadik szobában.

Anya és lánya merőben különböző típusú emberek voltak. Az anyja inkább magába zárkózott, keveset mesélt. A saját lánya is keveset tud róla. Abban a bizonyos periódusban, amikor a fia meghalt, két-három évig jóformán ki se mozdult a házból. Eltelt néhány év, s lassacskán kezdte visszanyerni az eredeti természetét, és egy vidám természetű, optimista, soha nem panaszkodó emberré vált. Öt személynek ő csinált mindent, márpedig ez nem olyan egyszerű. Nem volt bejárónőnk, nem volt takarítónőnk, és nem volt mosógép. Tehát a mosást, vasalást, főzést, nagyrészt a beszerzést is ő végezte. Csak akkor csökkent a nehézsége, mikor a férje teljesen nyugdíjba ment. Mi nem járultunk hozzá semmivel, minden az anyósom vállán volt. Ettől még vasalás közben énekelt, soha nem panaszkodott, hogy milyen nehéz a mosás. Egy személy csinált öt személy helyett mindent, beleértve a nagytakarítást. Annyira, hogy soha nem volt probléma a gyerek. Csak be kellett jelentsük, hogy megyünk valahova. »Elvállalod-e a gyereket?« Két hónapra elmentünk a feleségemmel, ő egy turnéra a zenekarral, én elmentem a tengerre, de soha nem volt probléma. Előfordult nem egy ízben az, hogy elmentünk, s kihasználta az alkalmat, hogy üres a ház, és kifestette a lakást, mire visszajöttünk. Csak lassacskán ők, az öregek meghaltak [Brüll Izsák 1979-ben, a felesége, Nothi Zsófia 1996-ban], a fiunk felnőtt, elment, így maradtunk ketten.”

1955-ben végeztem a Zenekonzervatóriumot. Nagyon kellemes volt a Kolozsvári Filharmóniánál dolgozni, mert csináltunk turnékat. Csak abból a szempontból volt nehéz, hogy 1989 [lásd: az 1989-es romániai forradalom] előtt fagytunk meg, levágtuk az ujját a kesztyűnek, és abban kellett játszani. Olyan hideg volt, hogy jöttek karmesterek külföldről, és nem akartak vezényelni. Azt mondták, ilyen hidegben nem lehet. Az egyik vett vagy 15 radiátort, hogy ne fázzunk, s amikor elment, az összeset összeszedték, mert akkor jött egy olyan rendelet – Ceauşescu ideje alatt –, hogy nem szabad radiátort használni. Nehéz kifűteni a próbatermet, mert nagyon nagy a terem, de nem is fűtöttek jól. Szóval fagytunk meg, mert spóroltak a fűtéssel a próbák ideje alatt és előadás alatt is. Ceauşescu kiadott egy ilyen törvényt, hogy spóroljanak az árammal. Egyébként nagyon szép évek voltak, rengeteget voltunk külföldön. Csak nem kaptunk elég napidíjat, ezért mindig vittünk konzervet magunkkal, azt kellett együk, hogy spóroljunk valami pénzt, hogy vehessünk az itthoniaknak valamit. Volt olyan eset, azt hiszem, Olaszországban, hogy a fiúk valamit főzőcskéztek a szállodában, s akkor kiütötték a biztosítékot. Nagy cirkusz volt, s írtak cikket az ottani újságban, hogy a román zenészek hogyan élnek, hogy konzervet kell hozzanak magukkal a turnéra. Nagyon sok helyen jártunk. Többször voltunk Franciaországban, voltunk Bulgáriában, Magyarországon, Csehszlovákiában, Lengyelországban, és Oroszországban is voltunk.

Voltak zsidó kollégák, de nem sokan. Junger Ervin, a zongoraszakon. Annyira számon voltak tartva, hogy egy időben az egyiknek – Reinfeld Jánosnak, aki nagyon tehetséges volt, és szólózott – megmondták, hogy nem jelenhet meg a plakáton, mert zsidó neve van. Ő most Németországban van, 1989 előtt, egy turné alkalmával „lemaradt”. Nagyon sokan maradtak le a kollégáink közül, mikor mentünk turnézni. Javarészt magyarok voltak a zenekarban, nem csinálhattak diszkriminációt a magyarok és románok között. Nagyon jó volt a viszony a kommunizmus ideje alatt a Filharmónia zenészei között. Volt olyan, hogy nem engedtek valakit külföldre, de nem azért, mert zsidó volt vagy magyar, hanem kellett menjen egy szekus [Securitate, a titkosrendőrség tagja. – A szerk.], és hogy legyen annak helye. Ilyenkor valakit mindig otthon hagytak. Egyszer engem is itthon hagytak, épp Németországba nem engedtek ki. És akkor kérdeztem, miért nem engednek, mikor általában olyanokat nem engedtek, akiknek rokona volt ott külföldön. Mondom: „Nekem nincs senki rokonom, aki van, az a föld alatt van, vagy a gázkamrában meghalt, úgyhogy miért épp Németországba nem engednek ki?” S minden indok nélkül azt mondták: „Nem engedhetjük.”

Mindig úgy egy kicsit meg voltam hatva, amikor zsidó szerzőktől játszottunk. De kimondottan zsidó dalokat nem játszottunk. Nekem a zsidó identitás azt jelenti, hogy annak születtem. Sokszor kellemetlen volt a háború alatt. Arra gondoltam, hogy mennyi baj van emiatt: nem tudok tanulni, nem tudom folytatni a hegedülést. Háború után már egy kicsit büszke is voltam, hogy a legjobb hegedűsök mind zsidók. Akkor kezdtem rádöbbenni, hogy nem szégyen, hogy zsidó legyen az ember. Mert úgy állították be, hogy a zsidó egy lusta, közben nem is igaz, szóval elferdítették a dolgokat.

A fiunk, András, aki 1956-ban született, nincsen körülmetélve. Akkoriban nem engedte volna a férjem, mert féltette az állását. Akkor mindenki nagy kommunista volt, s ő is a pártban volt. Aztán kidobták az egyetemről az asszisztensi állásból, mert 1956-ban volt Magyarországon, s mikor hazajött, akkor kitették, hogy mit keresett Magyarországon. Pedig véletlenül érte őt ott el a forradalom. De akkoriban a barátja is azon a véleményen volt, hogyha fia születik, nem csinálják meg ezt a körülmetélést. Aztán megbántuk később. Mégis magától érezte, hogy valami köze van a zsidósághoz, de nem tud imádkozni. A fiunknak mind román barátai voltak az iskolában, azokkal volt együtt. A zsidó ünnepeket csak később ünnepeltük meg, amikor X–XII-es [16–18 éves] volt. Peszáhkor egy időben az apám felolvasott egy könyvből, s aztán László. Templomba csak nagyünnepekkor ment a fiam is, de máskor nem. Egy évig Izraelben volt András a családjával 1984-ben, és megtanulta az ivrit nyelvet, és ez nagy hatással volt rá.

Nussbaum László, a férj meséli: „A fiam megismert egy itteni szász [erdélyi német] leányt. Szóba került, hogy összeházasodjanak. Én jobban szerettem volna, ha egy zsidót vett volna el, mert külön probléma a vegyes házasság, főként a zsidó–német házasság. Ez a két nemzet a holokauszt óta a legtávolabb áll egymástól. Apatársi találkozó volt, mire a lány anyja azt mondja, hogy ő nagyon szeretné, ha a fiam pappal házasodna össze, azaz pap esketné őket. Kérdi, hogy nincs-e nekem kifogásom az ellen? Mondom neki: »Ez nem tőlem függ. A fiamtól függ, ők házasodnak össze. De ha engem kérdez, határozottan ellenzem. Én nem kérem azt sem, hogy vallási lagzit csináljanak, de nem akarom, hogy kitérjen a zsidó vallásból. Tartsa meg mindenki az etnikumát, ha szeretik egymást úgyis megmaradnak.« Mire ő azt mondja: »Hát nekem nincs kifogásom az ellen, tartsák meg zsidó szertartás szerint. Nagyon vallásos vagyok, és szeretném, ha Isten előtt tartanák.« Egy szász asszony képes azt mondani, hogy akkor tartsa zsidó szerint. Én nem lettem volna képes azt mondani, hogy tartsa meg evangélikus szerint. Végül nem tartották meg sehogy. Emberek legyenek, és szeressék egymást.

Tudomásom szerint vallási nevelésben nem részesült a gyerekük [1982-ben született Szonya Kolozsváron], nem is keresztelték meg, de az anya, Gerlinde, a fiam felesége azért karácsonyfát csinált. Hanukát és más zsidó ünnepet szintén nem tartanak, mert a fiam nem vallásos. A menyemnek mondtam: »Nézd, én nem szeretném, ha a fiam itt maradna Romániában, mert nem lesz neki itt jövője.« Úgy volt akkor, hogy nem tudtam, látom-e még az életben, de hajlandó lettem volna lemondani róla. Azt mondtam, egyetlen lehetőség van ahhoz, hogy jól érvényesüljön: Izrael.

Már a gyerekkel – az én tanácsomra – 1984-ben kimentek Izraelbe, és beosztották őket nyelvtanfolyamra, majd speciális [szakmai] terminológiai tanfolyamra küldték. A fiam felesége Gerlinde, tiszta német név. Mivel az anya nem zsidó, a gyerek sem az. Az én unokám a világon mindenhol zsidó, kivéve Izraelben. Izraelben állásba kerültek, a menyem Haifa környékén dolgozott, Kirjat Jearimban. A menyemet soha nem kérdezte senki, hogy zsidó vagy nem zsidó. Persze, azért nem, mert nagyon tisztelték. De a fiam nem érezte jól magát, a munkatársak miatt, nem Izrael, maga az ország miatt. Izraelben létük 3–4. hónapjában egy papírost kap az izraeli német nagykövetségtől, hogy mehetnek véglegesen Németországba. Nem értették, hogy miért. Utána kaptak választ, hogy a feleség egész családja Németországban van, és azok elintézték, hogy az asszony német származású. Megtudták, hogy Gerlinde már elment Romániából Izraelbe, így értesítették az ottani nagykövetséget. 6 hónapon belül már el is mentek Izraelből Németországba. A fiam belgyógyász, a felesége egy vállalatnál tervezőmérnök, nagyon jól élnek. A fiam jelentkezett a stuttgarti hitközségnél, ahol laknak, de nem tölt be semmilyen funkciót.”

Én 1986-ban mentem nyugdíjba. Azóta nyugdíjasként élek. 1996-ig nem tudtunk semmi mást csinálni a férjemmel, csak vigyáztunk az anyámra, mert szklerózisa volt, ezenfelül meg baj volt a lábával, mivel elesett. Most egyikünk sem dolgozik, sem a férjem, sem én. 1994-ben vagy 1995-ben voltunk először Izraelben. A hitközség életébe nem kapcsolódtam be, csak tagja vagyok. A férjem néha tartott előadást a deportálásról a hitközség keretén belül. Most csak nagyünnepekkor megyünk a templomba. Amikor ünnep van – húsvétkor, Purimkor –, a hitközség kantinjában eszünk, mert szerveznek közös étkezéseket. Megyünk, hogy együtt legyünk más zsidókkal, és nem azért, mert kóser étel van. Pászkát eszünk ilyenkor. Az idéni Jom Kipurt is megtartottuk: mentünk templomba, meghallgattuk az imákat, de mivel héberül imádkoznak, sokat nem értettünk belőle.

Most talán könnyebb az életünk, gazdaságilag is jobb. Még kap valami segítséget a férjem Németországból, mivel deportálták. A fiam negyedévenként szokott jönni, mindig eljön Németországból a születésnapomra. A mindennapokban itthon főzőcskézek, néha olvasgatok.

Tilda Galpert

Tilda Galpert
Uzhgorod
Ukraine
Interviewer: Inna Galina
Date of interview: April 2003

Tilda Galpert is a short elderly lady, but it’s difficult to call her old. She has a straight posture and a nice face. Tilda has a vivid look in her eyes and a smiling face. She speaks Russian with a Hungarian accent, which is not surprising since her family speaks Hungarian for the most part. She has fluent Czech, Yiddish and Ukrainian. She is used to the typical Hungarian habit of having a cup of coffee in the morning. This is more like a ritual. She is very accurate and tidy in her conduct and with her apartment. She lives in a spacious apartment in a house built in the 1930s. There is heavy old furniture: armchairs, sofas and wardrobes. The family has lived here for over half a century and they guard their home thoroughly. The story of Tilda is entwined into her husband Ernest’s life story. They are very close. They treat each other with warmth and tenderness and care about one another.

My family background
Growing up
During the war
Post-war
Perestroika
Glossary

My family background

My maternal and paternal grandparents came from Palanok, a suburb of Mukachevo before the Great Patriotic War 1. After the war Mukachevo spread over Palanok and it became part of the town.

Subcarpathia 2 belonged to Austro-Hungary before 1918. In 1918 it was given to Czechoslovakia. This was the period of its prosperity. The Czechs were very loyal and cultured people and patronized Jews. The Jews were given the right to hold official posts and have private businesses. My parents told me about it. In 1938 the Hungarians came to power in Subcarpathia again, only it was a fascist Hungary that was an ally of Germany. After World War II Subcarpathia became part of the USSR, based on decisions of the Yalta Conference 3 in 1945.

Mukachevo is located in a very picturesque area at the southwestern foot of the Carpathian Mountains. The town stands on the Latoritza River, 40 kilometers northwest of Uzhhorod. Mukachevo was rather big according to Subcarpathian standards. At the beginning of the 20th century its population constituted 32,000 people. Half the population was Jewish. There were also Hutsuls [Ukrainians in Subcarpathia], Hungarians, Czechs, Slovaks and other nationalities. People were friendly, tolerant and respectful toward each other’s customs and religion. There were never any Jewish pogroms 4 in this area.

There were at least twelve synagogues and about ten prayer houses and a yeshivah in Mukachevo. There was a Jewish school and a Jewish grammar school. The Jewish school gave religious and general education and the grammar school only provided general education and quite a lot of Jews weren’t very happy about it. There was a house where two shochetim worked. There were always bunches of children there, whose mothers sent them to have their chickens or geese slaughtered.

On Saturday all Jews went to the synagogue. All stores were closed. The local non-Jewish population knew that they had to do their shopping on Thursdays and Fridays. Jews owned almost all trading business in town. There were a few non-Jewish stores on the outskirts of the town, but it was inconvenient to do the shopping there because of the distance. There were Jewish farmers and entrepreneurs, doctors, teachers and lawyers, but there weren’t so many of them. Subcarpathia is the place of woodcutters. The majority of the residents of Subcarpathia were involved in the wood industry. The Jews owned the majority of timber storage facilities. However, most of the Jewish families were poor like everywhere else. Many Jews were craftsmen: tailors, shoemakers, tinsmiths, carpenters; there were also Jewish women who made wigs. The craftsmen worked very hard to provide for their families. They lived in the center of the town for the most part. Land was less expensive on the outskirts and it mainly belonged to farmers. The craftsmen had to live in more populated areas to have more clients.

There was a big Jewish community in Mukachevo. The members of the community supported and helped each other. Every family was supposed to have matzah, chicken and gefilte fish on holidays and the community made sure that every family had these. They made contributions to buy medications for the poor and dowry for girls from poor families. They did much more than was necessary to help people.

It wasn’t a habit in our family to talk about the history of the family or the life of our grandfathers and grandmothers. Therefore, I know very little about them.

My father’s parents were born and lived in the village of Palanok near Mukachevo. The population of Palanok was 50% German and 50% Jewish. My grandfather’s name was Volf Akerman. I don’t know my grandmother’s name. We called her babika [granny]. My grandparents were born around the 1850s. I have no information about their families. My grandmother died when I was a child, and I cannot remember her well. She visited us in Mukachevo once. She came on a horse-driven cart and we found it very strange that she was wearing a black gown and black kerchief in summer. My grandfather wore black clothes and a round-shaped hat. My grandparents were very religious. They wore traditional Jewish clothes and led a traditional Jewish life. My grandfather was very strict about observing Jewish traditions in the family. My father’s parents celebrated Sabbath and Jewish holidays in accordance with traditions. On Sabbath and on Jewish holidays they went to the synagogue. They had seats of their own in the synagogue. They spoke Yiddish at home and Hungarian and Czech with their non-Jewish neighbors. Many non-Jewish residents in Mukachevo could understand and speak Yiddish.

There were five children in my father’s family. I don’t know when they were born. The oldest was David. My father Ignatz was the next child, born in 1885. His Jewish name was Aizik. The third child in the family was Isroel. Then their sister Miriam was born and the youngest in the family was Yankel. All of them grew up religious and had religious families. They strictly observed all traditions and celebrated holidays.

I know that my father and his brothers attended a German school in Palanok. They spoke fluent German. Besides going to school all the boys studied in cheder and the girls received Jewish education at home. They had classes with a private teacher. The girls studied Hebrew to be able to read the prayers. They learned Jewish traditions and religion.

Palanok was located at the very foot of a mountain. There were vines growing around the mountain. My grandfather made wine and had a tavern. My grandparents weren’t rich, but they had enough for a living. They had a big family and spent much to raise and educate their children. They had a big house. I’ve been there. The tavern occupied half of the house on the side of the street. It was a hall with tables for customers and an adjusting kitchen. My grandmother did the cooking. There were only a few items on the menu. The customers drank the young wine that grandfather made. Palanok inhabitants rented the tavern for wedding parties. There were four or five rooms in the part of the house where my grandmother, my grandfather, David and Isroel and their families lived. This house is still there and there’s a German community in it today. We traveled to our grandparents on foot. They always had nuts and pastries to give us. They died in the 1930s. I was a small child then and cannot remember any details.

My father’s oldest brother David owned the tavern. He inherited it after my grandfather died. As a rule, a father left his business to his oldest son at that time. David was married and had a son. During the Great Patriotic War David was sent to Auschwitz where he perished. His wife and son stayed in Mukachevo. They also perished during the Holocaust. I don’t know any details. David and Isroel and their families lived with my grandparents. Isroel owned a brewery. He was married and had two sons: Zvi, born in 1925, and Chaim. They moved to Israel right after the war. Zvi Akerman still lives there in Petach-Tikvah. We visit him when we travel to Israel. Chaim perished in Israel during the Six-Day-War 5. Isroel perished in Auschwitz in 1944.

I remember my father’s sister Miriam. She married a trader. He was a Jew. His last name was Feuerstein. Miriam’s husband had a store in Mukachevo. They had many children. I think, there were ten of them. I cannot remember their names now. We were friends. We visited one another often. We played together. Miriam’s family was religious. My father’s youngest brother, Yankel, had a glass polishing shop. He had many children. They came one after another every year. My father helped my grandfather to make wine before he got married.

My mother’s parents lived in Mukachevo. My grandfather, Samuel Weiss, born in the 1850s, died before I was born, in the early 1920s. My grandmother was about the same age as my grandfather. I don’t know my grandmother’s first or maiden name. She was babika for us, kids, and the adults also called her grandmother. After my grandfather died our great-grandmother lived with our grandmother. I don’t know whether she was my maternal or paternal great-grandmother. She died in the 1930s at the age of 94. My grandmother died shortly afterwards.

My grandfather Weiss was a wealthy man. He had a wholesale store in the center of Mukachevo. My grandmother was a housewife. My grandparents were very religious. They observed all Jewish traditions and raised their children religiously. My grandfather had a beard and payes. He wore a hat and a long jacket. My grandmother wore dark clothes and a wig according to Jewish traditions.

My grandparents had a nice big house. I believe there were at least six rooms in it. They lived in the Jewish street – this was a typically Jewish neighborhood. There was a Jewish community building and a mikveh in this street.

There were seven children in my mother’s family. I don’t know when they were born but I know who was older and who was younger. My mother’s brother Meyer was the oldest. Then came Izidor, his Jewish name was Srul. Izidor was deaf and dumb. After Izidor came Moshe. Then three daughters were born. My mother was born in 1885. Her Jewish name was Hinde and in her passport she was Helena. Then came Hana, Janka, as was written in her passport, and Perl, Piroska in her passport. The youngest was Fishl, Fulop in his passport. They had Hungarian names written in their passports. I don’t know why, probably, it was common practice at that time. All the boys studied in cheder and the girls had classes at home with a teacher. Afterwards they studied in a Hungarian secondary school. My mother’s sisters and brothers were deeply religious and observed all Jewish traditions.

After my grandfather died his oldest son Meyer inherited his business. His other son Izidor was a typesetter in a printing house. He was the most handsome of all brothers. In the 1920s Izidor and his brother Moshe moved to Budapest. Moshe married a Jewish girl from Budapest. He had a business in Budapest. His only daughter moved to England before 1940. I saw Moshe after the war when I was going home from the concentration camp in 1945. He was still religious at that time. Moshe died in 1947. After he died his wife went to England to live with her daughter. I didn’t know Moshe’s wife or daughter. Izidor was single. He perished in the ghetto in Budapest in 1944.

Hana got married. Her husband’s last name was Ostreicher. I have no information about her husband. Perl got married, too. Her husband’s last name was Rot. Her husband owned a paper factory. He was a rich man. Perl had a daughter, Ilus, who lives in Israel now. Her last name in marriage was Shronek. When we travel to Israel we meet with her. Ilus lives in Jerusalem with her family. She is very religious. Hana and Perl were housewives. Perl, her husband and Hana perished in a concentration camp  [Auschwitz] in 1944. Well, if one started counting how many of our people died! I’d rather switch to a different subject. This one is too hard to talk about. My mother’s youngest brother Fulop didn’t work. He was very ill. He died of tuberculosis when he was young, in 1932.

Growing up

I don’t know where or how my parents met. They got married in 1908 or 1909. Of course, they had a Jewish wedding. They didn’t tell me any details. After the wedding they began to live with my mother’s parents in Mukachevo. We had three rooms and a kitchen in this house. There were no comforts. We fetched water from a pump tank in the yard. There was a big stove in the kitchen where my mother cooked. There were smaller stoves to heat the rooms. The stoves were stoked with wood. We didn’t have a garden. We bought food at the market.

We had heavy old oak furniture in the house. There was a mezuzah on each door post. In the morning and in the evening men wearing traditional Jewish clothing – a black jacket and a hat – went past our house to pray at the synagogue. I don’t think there were non-religious Jews in Mukachevo when I was a child or in my teens. All the Jews in our street celebrated Sabbath and the women lit candles on Friday and everybody followed the kashrut. They celebrated all Jewish holidays in accordance with Jewish traditions.

My father was a short man with payes and a beard. He wore a hat and a long jacket to go out and a kippah at home. My mother wore elegant black clothes and a wig. My parents were wealthy. They had seats of their own in the synagogue that they could afford to pay for. My mother went to the synagogue on Sabbath and on Jewish holidays and my father went there every morning and evening.

My father made and sold wine. He learned this from his father in Palanok. My father brought grapes for wine from my grandfather and also bought some in the neighboring village of Beregovo [40 km from Mukachevo]. He bought a basement in Mukachevo. He had a big pressing machine in this basement for making wine. My father made kosher wine. His clients were Jews that bought wine for Sabbath. He had quite a few clients that knew that he made good wine and came to buy it from him.

My mother was a housewife. They had many children and had to hire a housemaid to help with the children. She was a Ukrainian girl and lived with us as a member of the family. She did our laundry, cleaned the house and helped my mother to get everything ready for the cooking. My mother did the cooking herself. It wasn’t allowed to let anybody else cook since the food might turn out non-kosher. They always watched that the housemaid didn’t touch the wine since my father sold kosher wine. If she had touched it it wouldn’t have been kosher any longer.

My sister Margarita, Gitl was her Jewish name, was born in 1909, my oldest brother David in 1911 and Fishl, Fulop in his documents, in 1912. In 1914 my sister Szerena followed. Her Jewish name was Surah. My brother Gershy was born in 1916. In his documents his name was given as Hugo. Aron followed in 1918. Then came Perl. She died in infancy. I was born in 1923. My Jewish name is Toby. I was the seventh child in the family. My youngest brother, Samuel, followed in 1925. His Jewish name was Shmil. This was our family. I’m the only one left.

Of course, our parents were religious and observed all Jewish rituals. On the eight day after they were born the boys had their brit milah. We celebrated Sabbath and all Jewish holidays at home.

On Friday morning my mother made challah and cooked for two days. She usually made boiled chicken and gefilte fish. To keep it warm for Saturday lunch she left a pot of cholent in the oven. On Friday evening she lit candles and said a prayer over them. During the prayer she covered her face with her hands. Then we all prayed and greeted Sabbath, saying ‘Shabbat, shalom’. My father said a blessing over the food and we sat down for dinner. On Saturday my father went to the synagogue. When he returned he read the Torah. He read a Saturday section of the Torah to us. Nobody did any work on that day. It wasn’t allowed to even light a lamp or stoke the stove. Our Ukrainian neighbor came to do this for us.

I remember a general clean up of the house before Pesach. There wasn’t a single breadcrumb to be ignored. A day before the seder our father checked the whole apartment. My mother gave him a goose feather and a little shovel and he walked all corners pretending that he was sweeping them. Pretending, since all corner were shining so clean they were. My father did this symbolic sweeping. There was some chametz hidden for him to find. My parents put this chametz into an old wooden spoon, tied it with a piece of cloth and burned it in the oven. This was the ritual in all Jewish families in Mukachevo. My brother did it after my father died. There was a Jewish bakery in Mukachevo. They started making matzah about a month before Pesach. The bakery was cleaned from chametz, then a rabbi inspected it and issued a certificate confirming that the bakery was clean. The bakery delivered matzah to Jewish homes. The Jewish community provided poor Jews with a bit of free matzah. My mother made traditional Jewish food on Pesach: chicken broth with matzah, gefilte fish, tsimes, strudels and cookies. On the first evening of Pesach my father conducted the seder. He sat at the head of the table and one of his youngest sons asked him the traditional questions [the mah nishtanah]. We prayed and sang songs. I don’t remember the lyrics, but I remember the tunes. We had no guests for the seder, but on the next day our parents’ relatives visited us.

I also remember Sukkot well. A sukkah was built from the same panels every year and reed was bought for the roof. We had meals in the sukkah throughout the eight days of the holiday. Before each meal my father said a prayer. The food was handed through a window. There was a traditional nut game during Sukkot. Children piled up three to four nuts and threw a bigger nut into the pile. The one that managed to hit the pile took all the nuts.

On Rosh Hashanah my parents went to the synagogue. When they returned my mother put a plate with apple pieces and a saucer with honey on the table wishing for a sweet and happy year to come. Before Yom Kippur we had the kapores ritual with a white hen for women and a white roaster for men. On Yom Kippur we all went to the synagogue. There was shofar blowing. All members of the family fasted. Children began fasting at the age of five. After the first star the fast was over and the family sat down for dinner. At Chanukkah guests gave children some money.

We spoke Yiddish at home. It was our mother tongue. When I went to school I spoke Czech with my friends. It was the state language.

Perhaps, there was anti-Semitism somewhere before the war, but not in Mukachevo. This was a Jewish town and if somebody had dared to demonstrate anti-Semitism he would have been killed by the Jews. The Jewish community in Mukachevo was very strong. Here’s what happened once: a Jewish man was going home from a party. He was wearing a fur brimmed hat. Some Czech soldiers passing by grabbed his hat and ran away. The Jew told the rabbi about what had happened. On the next day all Jews of Mukachevo went on a march past the Czech barracks. Those soldiers were identified. They returned the hat and apologized to the man and the rabbi. This was the only incident of this kind, but it probably happened because those soldiers were young and probably just felt like having a bit of fun.

The Jews celebrated holidays in accordance with the laws. We lived about 50 meters from the synagogue. It was a big choral synagogue. It was beautiful. The women stayed on the second floor. My parents began to take us to the synagogue when we turned seven. My father went to pray at the synagogue every morning. Most Jewish men went to the synagogue every morning and evening. Some Jews prayed at home and this was no contradiction to the laws. All boys had to go to pray at the synagogue every day. Everybody was religious. My mother watched even more strictly that all boys put on their tefillin in the morning and prayed at home. I don’t know why they stayed at home on weekdays rather than going to the synagogue with my father. When they reached the age of 13 my brothers had their bar mitzvah. They had to prepare a report about a section of the Talmud and speak in front of guests at home. It was quite a remarkable ceremony. It never happened that somebody smoked on Saturday. All Jewish families watched that all laws were followed. Everybody was afraid of being a cause of an unpleasant rumor. Everybody knew each other and one couldn’t do something wrong without being noticed. Everybody had to follow Jewish laws, traditions and religious rituals. All families followed the kashrut. The children took poultry to a shochet to have it slaughtered.

My parents took no interest in politics. They only worked hard. My father sympathized with the communists, but he didn’t live to find out what it was like in reality. He said that he was for communism or socialism if they didn’t touch religion. My mother sometimes read books that I borrowed to read; Gorky 6, for example, they were classic books. She said that it was good how they described it, but why did the communists want to destroy religion? Religion was their life. This was a religious family that I grew up in.

The children weren’t as religious as their parents. All the children got Jewish education. Boys went to cheder at the age of five. When I turned six my mother sent me to a cheder for girls 7. She wanted me to learn to pray and read in Hebrew. The cheder where I studied was called Beyt Yakov. I studied there for three months until the Hungarians came to power and closed it.

At the age of six I went to a Czech public elementary school. There was a Jewish school in Mukachevo, but our parents sent us to a Czech school since it prepared for entrance to commercial academy. The next stage was lower secondary school where I studied four years and then I took a one-year training course preparing students to enter commercial academy. In general, we studied nine years. My brothers and sisters also went to this school. This was at the time of the Czechoslovak Republic [First Czechoslovak Republic] 8. There were many Jews in Mukachevo. There was no segregation and other children or teachers made no difference in their attitudes. There were Zionist organizations for young people in Mukachevo. In the People’s House there was a Zionist club for children and teenagers. There were various clubs there. I sang in the choir and went in for gymnastics. I took an active part in public activities.

The commercial academy was a prestigious educational institution. The building of this academy has been preserved. It’s a beautiful building. This academy provided a good education and its graduates had no problems finding a job. There were quite a few lecturers from Ukraine working there. They escaped from Ukraine after the Revolution of 1917 9. Besides special subjects we studied foreign languages, shorthand and typing. My sisters Margarita and Szerena and my brother Fishl finished commercial academy during the time of the Czechoslovak Republic.

My brothers and sisters had a difficult life. My oldest sister Margarita was the first to get married. After finishing commercial academy she worked as a lawyer in an insurance company. Her husband whose last name was Weiss was her cousin. His father was my father’s cousin. They were fond of revolutionary ideas and rejected any religion. They got married in 1932. Regardless of their convictions they had a religious wedding with a chuppah. They agreed to have a chuppah to please our parents, but for them it was a formality. My mother said she wouldn’t bear it if my sister didn’t have a chuppah at her wedding. We had a wedding photo of Margarita: they both wore leather jackets and Margarita wore a white beret. They were both laughing while a Jewish bride was supposed to be crying at her wedding.

Their son Alexandr was born in 1935 and our parents insisted that the boy had his brit milah on the eight day. So Alexandr had it. In 1938, when fascist Hungary came to power in Subcarpathia Margarita’s husband emigrated to the Soviet Union and she stayed in Mukachevo. My sister obtained a passport to follow her husband when World War II began. She stayed in Mukachevo. Her husband couldn’t return to Hungary since citizens of the USSR weren’t allowed to leave the country. We couldn’t correspond with residents of the USSR since they were persecuted for corresponding with foreigners [for keeping in touch with relatives abroad] 10, and they asked us to stop writing them. After the war, when I lived in Uzhhorod that belonged to the USSR, I tried to find Margarita’s husband, but I failed. He probably perished in the Gulag 11 like my brother did.

My older brother David served in the Czechoslovak army. His service lasted two years and when he returned he worked as a shop assistant in a store. He married a Jewish girl, whose last name was Fridman, in 1937. Her parents were also religious. David had a Jewish wedding in summer. He lived in Mukachevo until 1942, then he was taken to a labor camp in Ukraine. He perished that same year.

My brother Fulop also served in the Czechoslovak army. He had many friends in the army. They were Jewish and non-Jewish men. He often came home on leave with his Czech friend. This was in 1933. When the Hungarians came to power and began to persecute Jews, Fulop joined a group of Jews that crossed the Polish border moving to the Polish town of Katowice [300 km from Mukachevo] in 1939. Many emigrants from Subcarpathia moved to Katowice. From there they were sent to England. In England David joined the Czech Corps. Two of my cousins on my mother’s side served there, too. During World War II Fulop was at the Western front.

My older sister Szerena’s wedding turned our family life upside down. After finishing commercial academy Szerena went to work in an insurance company. She was a well respected and dedicated employee. Szerena got fond of socialist ideas. A legal communist newspaper was published in Mukachevo: Zakarpatskaya Pravda. It was published by Oleksa Borkanyuk, deputy of the Czechoslovak Government from the Czechoslovak Communist Party. There was no ban on the Communist Party in Czechoslovakia. Szerena offered her help with the publishing of this newspaper. This was how she met Oleksa Borkanyuk. They fell in love with each other. In 1936 they began to live together. Of course, there was no religious wedding.

That my sister married a non-Jewish man was a huge blow to my parents. Our mother sat shivah for Szerena for a week like Jews do for someone who died. When this was over she refused to see Szerena ever again. Szerena’s husband was a very nice person and a good husband, but he wasn’t a Jew. They rented an apartment in Mukachevo where I visited them several times. Other brothers and my sister also visited Szerena. I didn’t tell my mother that I went to see Szerena. My mother didn’t bear the mentioning of Szerena’s name and never saw her again. Szerena and her husband had to move to Uzhhorod to cut off people’s discussions and rumors. Later, on our way to Auschwitz, I said, ‘I wish we knew about Tsyka’ – we called Szerena Tsyka at home. My mother replied, ‘I don’t want to hear about her again’. That’s how religious education works: it was planted so deep in my mother’s conscience that she even rejected her own daughter. My mother was ashamed of Szerena’s marriage. I think that probably if it hadn’t been for the Jewish surrounding my mother would have forgiven Szerena. She couldn’t do it since other people would have condemned her.

Szerena’s husband moved to Moscow in 1938. When the Hungarians came to power in Subcarpathia the Communist Party still existed in Khust. Borkanyuk was secretary of the Communist Party of Subcarpathia. When the Hungarians came to Khust he had to emigrate to the USSR since the Hungarians banned the Communist Party. Szerena went to Moscow in 1939. During World War II she lived in Moscow.  Borkanyuk became a founder of a partisan movement in Subcarpathia in 1942. He perished in a fascist prison in 1942.

Jews in Mukachevo were indignant about Szerena’s marriage. It was considered to be a serious misconduct. This was the reason of my father’s death. He was killed at the synagogue in spring 1937. There was a psycho living in a village near Mukachevo. He occasionally came to the synagogue in Mukachevo. People told him that Aizik Akerman’s daughter had married a goy. They actually set him against my father. This psycho took a log from near the stove at the synagogue and hit my father on his temple. My father died that very night. It was a horrible tragedy for all of us and the town was stirring up with the news that a man had been killed at the synagogue. My father was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Mukachevo in accordance with the Jewish tradition. My elder brother David recited the Kaddish. After this calamity my mother had to sell everything we had. We also fired our housemaid. We had a very hard time. The children were too young to go to work. My older sister Margarita had to take care of her own family. Due to this hard situation I had to go to work at the age of 15.

In November 1938 the Hungarians came back to Mukachevo after they had been away for 20 years. I quit school since my mother couldn’t afford to pay the fees. In April 1939 I became a worker at the factory of my uncle Rot, Aunt Perl’s husband. This factory manufactured stationery: notebooks, accounting books, packages, etc. I worked at this factory for five years until April 1944 when the Germans came. I worked ten and a half hours a day. It was hard work. Most of the employees were Jews. I met a girl at the factory and we became best friends. Her name was Frida. My brother Aron worked at the glass polishing shop of my mother’s brother Yankel. After finishing commercial academy my brother Fulop was a teacher in the village of Zagatiye in Mukachevo district. Hugo was at first an apprentice to a tailor in Mukachevo and after finishing his training he became a tailor. Samuel studied at school.

Before 1918, during the period of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, the laws were loyal. They acknowledged the equality of all people. Therefore, people weren’t concerned when they heard that the Hungarians were coming back. Some people like my mother, for example, were glad that it was going to happen. She couldn’t learn Czech in 20 years and we even teased her a little about it. As for Hungarian, she knew it well. She went to a Hungarian school in her childhood. However, we forgot that this time it was going to be a fascist Hungary. We didn’t have information about the situation in Hungary. Newspapers didn’t cover any details of this aspect. When we got to know about what Hungarian fascism was like we were horrified. Hungarians began to persecute Jews as soon as they came to power [through the anti-Jewish laws in Hungary] 12. They expropriated stores and enterprises from Jews. Jews could transfer their property to a goy and they had to pay for this procedure or otherwise they had to give up what they had for good. There were terrible problems. The local population tried to speak Czech after 1939 in protest against the Hungarian policy.

I met my future husband Ernest Galpert at the factory. We call him Ari.. His Jewish name is Aron. Ari was born in Mukachevo in 1923. We are the same age. His father, Ishiya Galpert, was a Hasid 13. He finished school in Nitra, a town in Slovakia not far from Bratislava. Ishiya owned a food store in Mukachevo. Ari’s mother’s name was Perl [nee Kalush]. She was a housewife and helped her husband in the store. There were three children in the family: Ari had a younger and an older sister. He studied in cheder and in a Czech secondary school. After finishing school he became an apprentice to a joiner. When the Hungarians came to power the owner of this shop had to transfer it to somebody else and Ari lost his job. In 1941 he became a mechanic at the Rot factory. We became friends in 1943. We were 20. This was the time of the German occupation. Ari visited me at home and I went to see him in his home. Our families were religious. Ari and I met after work every day. We went for a walk. At that time we were required to wear yellow stars on our clothes. We decided to be together, but this was no time to think about life arrangements. We decided to wait and see how the situation would develop.

During the war

In 1939 the war in Poland began. We were almost starving. In 1941 Germany attacked the USSR. Hungary was an ally of Germany. A food coupon system was introduced. Jews didn’t receive any coupons. We could buy food at the ‘black market’, but it was way too expensive. We starved. We would have died from hunger if it hadn’t been for my older sister Margarita who worked at home. She had a good education and knew French and German. She translated documents and wrote requests and application forms. She took any work she was offered. She was like an ‘underground attorney’. She played the violin beautifully. God, she had so many talents! She earned well and sometimes gave me some work to do. Villagers who didn’t know where to submit their documents paid me some small change for taking their documents to the reception in the Town Hall. 1943 was the most difficult year. We bought corn flour that was less expensive than bread. We made corn cookies. Margarita’s son was a lovely boy. I was his baby-sitter since my sister was always busy.

In 1942 the Hungarians began to take young men into forced labor battalions to support the front. The forced laborers excavated trenches and constructed defense lines. My brothers David and Hugo were recruited to a labor battalion. They perished in 1942. We know that David perished somewhere in Ukraine, but we have no information about where Hugo died. Aron, who was a worker in Yankel’s shop, decided to escape to the USSR in 1942. He crossed the border and the Soviet border officials arrested him for illegal crossing of the border. He was sent to the Gulag. They didn’t care that he was a Jew escaping from the fascists. Aron perished in the Gulag in 1943.

In April 1944 Rot’s factory where I worked was closed. All the Jews of Mukachevo were taken to the ghetto. We didn’t have to move since our street formed the center of the two ghettos organized in Mukachevo because there were so many Jews. My older sister Margarita and her son, who was nine years old, happened to be in the other ghetto. We couldn’t communicate since both ghettos were fenced and there was patrol watching the fence. My mother, my younger brother Shmil and I stayed in our house. We didn’t know that our three brothers had perished. My sister Szerena was in Moscow and my brother Fishl was in England. I don’t remember how long we stayed in the ghetto – probably a few weeks. We weren’t allowed to leave the ghetto, but there were no other restrictions. We starved. We had no food in the ghetto. Occasionally villagers who knew our family brought us some food.

After some time we heard rumors that we were going to be taken to a concentration camp. Then we were told to prepare some food and clothes to take with us. Then all inmates were ordered to come to the territory of the brick factory. We spent I don’t know how many days in the open air on the factory territory. From there we were taken to the railway station and went to Auschwitz by train. We traveled in an overcrowded train for about a week. We didn’t get any food on the way. This happened in April 1944. When we came to the concentration camp we didn’t know what kind of place it was. Later I got to know that this was Auschwitz.

I wasn’t even in the same carriage with my brother. I wanted to go with my friend Frida and my brother wanted to be with his friends. In Auschwitz my mother and I got separated. The guard shouted that older and younger people should stand in separate lines. They said that they were going to take the older ones on a truck. I hugged my mother and said, ‘I’ll see you soon!’. We were not meant to see each other ever again. My mother perished in the gas chamber in Auschwitz on the day of our arrival.

I saw my brother in the concentration camp when we were going to the washing facility. The boys were standing in a separate group and he was shouting something to me. I replied that we would talk later. I though that our family would get together – we didn’t know what kind of place this was. We didn’t know it was a death camp. We thought it was a labor camp. This was the last time I saw my brother. My younger brother Shmil died from diarrhea caused by hunger. My cousin Zvi Akerman, Uncle Izidor’s son, held him when he was dying. Zvi told me about it later. My sister Margarita also perished. She was young and strong and could have survived. The Germans didn’t exterminate those that could work, but she was there with her son, and the children were sent to the gas chamber immediately. She probably didn’t want to leave her son behind – of course she didn’t, she was his mother and she went there with him.

We stayed in Auschwitz for three months, three months of hard exhausting work and hunger. This was a very hard period. I told this story in my interview to the Spielberg Foundation [Survivors of the Shoah Foundation]. I can’t bring back these memories again. Later my friend and I were taken to a labor camp in Reichenbach [600 km from Auschwitz, Germany]. After 1945 this town belonged to eastern Germany. Life was relatively better there. We put together radio parts. It wasn’t very hard work, but we were starved and exhausted.

On 8th May 1945 we saw that the guards of the camp were gone. Soviet tanks moved along the streets of the town and we got to know that the war was over. It’s hard to find words to describe how happy we were. We didn’t get any information in all those years. We were released on that day.

Post-war

My friend Frida and I set out on our way home. We went to the concentration camp together, were together in the camp, worked together, shared a bed and we were also on our way to Mukachevo together. We stayed in an abandoned apartment in Reichenbach for two weeks. Frida and I were waiting for some opportunity to go home when Red Cross representatives came looking for Czech citizens. We believed we were Czech citizens since Hungary had occupied Subcarpathia temporarily. We spoke Czech and thought this was sufficient proof that we came from Czechoslovakia. We were taken to the town of Trutnov in Czechoslovakia, the first town near the border. From there we were sent to Moravska Ostrava and then to Bratislava. From Bratislava we went home via Budapest. We didn’t have to pay anywhere: we just said that we were going home from a concentration camp and were given way. In Budapest we went to a synagogue. We stayed in a big building that must have been a yeshivah. Doctors examined us. We received three meals a day and didn’t have to do any work. We stayed there for a few days and then moved on. There was a group of young people that we went with.

When we arrived in Mukachevo we met Frida’s friend Voita. He had been in a forced labor battalion in Austria with Ari. They returned to Mukachevo together. When they returned to Mukachevo there were no Jews back from the concentration camps yet, and Ari volunteered to the Soviet army. He said he wanted a revenge for what the fascists had done. He went to the army in April 1945 not knowing that the war was going to be over soon. When the war was over he couldn’t be demobilized since he came of age for mandatory service in the army. Subcarpathia became a part of the USSR and Ari was subject to service in the army as a Soviet citizen. I waited for him for three years: one year in the camp and two years after the war. He was demobilized in March 1947.

Voita, Frida’s boyfriend, gave me the number of Ari’s field mailbox. This was in 1945. I wrote letters, but it took some time before I received his response. His first letter reached me on 6th November 1945. This was when he got to know that I had survived. I sent him my photograph, which was taken after I returned home. I signed it with the words, ‘To my beloved Ari’. Ari has kept it and we have this photograph in our family album now.

At home I heard that my sister Szerena lived in Uzhhorod. I went to the town party committee that had the only telephone in town and asked them to call Szerena and tell her that I was there. In June 1945 my sister took me to Uzhhorod. She had a six-bedroom apartment. Szerena worked at the regional party committee where she was head of department for work with women. She was wealthy and had plenty of food. This was the first time in many years that I had enough food. 

In 1945 my brother Fulop returned from England. In England Fulop was in the Czech Corps. He didn’t want to stay in England after the war. Fascism was done away with and the war was over. He decided he could go home. He didn’t know what the Soviet regime was like. He also came to Szerena’s. He married a Jewish girl from Uzhhorod in 1946. Her name was Shura Lebi. Fulop and Shura had a traditional Jewish wedding with a chuppah. After some time, they received an apartment. Fulop and Shura had two children: a son, Alexandr, and a daughter, Vera. Fulop was an engineer at the machine building plant. He died from a severe disease in Uzhhorod in 1987. He was buried in the Jewish section of the town cemetery. It was a Jewish funeral. His wife and children emigrated to Canada where his wife’s sister lived.

I was eager to join the Communist Party. I believed it was my duty to do so. Since I didn’t quite understand what the Soviet power was about I believed in my ideals. I believed the Soviet propaganda stating that all people were equal in the USSR and that there was no oppression or national segregation that we had since 1938. The ideas of communism are very attractive actually, but what they called communism in the USSR had nothing to do with communism. Only I didn’t understand it then. An old friend of our family was the secretary of the district party committee. He came from Mukachevo. Old communist members from Mukachevo that knew Szerena and me gave me a recommendation to the Party. I became a party member within a day. My sister made arrangements for me to attend a three-month party training course to at least learn Ukrainian. It wasn’t a problem for me. After finishing this course I went to work. At first I worked at the regional food department: I was responsible for the distribution of food products to stores. I had to go on business trips across the region, but there was no transportation. I didn’t like this job. Braun, a Jewish man, was head of the town trade department. He offered me a job and I went to work at the public meals sector in the town trade department. I worked there until 1948.

In March 1947 Ari demobilized from the army. He came to meet me in Uzhhorod. Ari and I lived in Szerena’s apartment. In late April Ari began to work as mechanic at a waste salvage shop called Utilptom. On 30th April he and I went for a walk to watch how they decorated the town for 1st May. We were walking when it suddenly occurred to us to go register our marriage at the registry office. We had our passports with us and the director of the office registered our marriage. We received our certificate, had our photograph taken by a street photographer and each went to our offices to celebrate 1st May. Ari was back home before I returned from the party. He told my sister that we were married. That was it. Soon my friend Frida married Voita. They moved to Israel in the 1970s. They still live there. They are both old like we are.

Ari went to study in an evening school. He joined the Party at work. After finishing school he entered the Machine Building Faculty of Odessa Machine Building College. He was an extramural student. Later the shop where he worked became the Bolshevik Plant. There were 800 employees there and it was a big plant for Uzhhorod standards. Ari was the deputy technical director before he retired. He and I always identified ourselves as Jews. We didn’t observe any Jewish traditions. We always wrote in application forms that our mother tongue was Yiddish. We also wrote that I was in a concentration camp during the war and Ari in a forced labor battalion. Other Soviet citizens tried to keep quiet about such facts in their biography.

In 1948 I attended a nine-month party training course. Then I went to work at the regional executive committee [Ispolkom] 14. I worked there in the food department from 1949 to 1985. There were good times and bad times. In 1948 the struggle against ‘cosmopolitans’ 15 began. I read a lot about it in the newspapers, but I never faced any negative attitude directed towards me. I remember January 1953, the time of the Doctors’ Plot 16, a horrible time. Some people were forced to speak against doctors, saying they were poisoners. A friend of our family, the communist Rotman, a Jew, was forced to make a speech. He refused and was fired immediately. As for me, nobody forced me to say anything. I was kind of born with a silver spoon in my mouth.

How hard was Stalin’s death for us! How I cried! My God, it was hard! All people cried. Then after Nikita Khrushchev 17 spoke at the Twentieth Party Congress 18 we heard what Stalin had done. Only when Khrushchev told us what Stalin had done did we see things clearly. We believed everything without second thought. We did see what was happening. We knew everything, but we didn’t want to believe that it was true. We didn’t want to give it a thought. We were like ostriches hiding their heads in the sand.

When in 1956 the Soviet troops came to Hungary we believed the Soviet propaganda telling us that the Germans wanted to invade Hungary and that it was necessary to rescue the Hungarians. [The interviewee is referring to the 1956 Revolution in Hungary.] 19 However, when the Soviet troops came to Czechoslovakia in 1968 [to put down the so-called Prague Spring] 20 we were indignant. We sympathized with the Czechs. We were upset when the Soviet troops destroyed democracy in Czechoslovakia. But what could we do? Some people in Moscow openly demonstrated their disagreement with the party policy in Czechoslovakia. We were no heroes here. We expressed our indignation in whispers sitting in the kitchen with our family. We were afraid of being arrested. Anyone that dared to disagree with the party policy had to be punished and we knew this but too well. 

Life went on. We received an apartment. Life settled down a little. Our son Pyotr was born in 1951. His Jewish name is Pinchas. He was named after my husband’s paternal grandfather. Our second son Yuri was born in 1955. Both our sons were circumcised. It was a tribute of respect to our parents and members of the family that perished. We hired a nanny for our children. Her name was Palania. She was an old Christian woman and very religious. She always reproached us, ‘Why are you not teaching your children to have faith in God? I would baptize Pyotr.’ We laughed at hearing this. Frankly speaking, we weren’t religious people. We didn’t go to the synagogue, not even on Jewish holidays. The Soviet power struggled against religion. My husband and I held official posts in governmental offices and were party members. We couldn’t afford to demonstrate any sign of religiosity. Besides, during the war, when we saw that Jews were exterminated only due to the fact that they were Jews, our faith in God who allowed this to happen was shattered.

We raised our sons like common Soviet children. They were Young Octobrists 21, pioneers and Komsomol 22 members. They studied in a Russian school. We spoke Hungarian at home, but they have very poor Hungarian. However, they can speak it when necessary. They also studied English. Our family doesn’t actually use Yiddish. Not at all! Our children knew about Jewish traditions. We always remembered about Jewish holidays. We didn’t celebrate them, though. We told our children about these holidays. We showed them what games we played when we were children. I also cooked traditional Jewish food. I often made gefilte fish – this was their favorite food. On Saturday I made chicken broth. I also used to make cholent, they still like it. So, we tried to teach our children. My children knew very well what Rosh Hashanah was and that one had to fast before Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur and that God would forgive all sins. Although we didn’t actually fast. We told our children how the seder at Pesach is conducted. We knew this all since we grew up in this religious environment. When they grew older I made a Rosh Hashanah meal for them: tsimes and fish and all traditional food. My conscience is clear: I taught my sons what they had to know about Jewish traditions. And they will live their life to their liking… I’m not saying that we inspired them to religious thoughts, but we tried to teach them traditions. Most important is that they like it all.

After finishing school Pyotr went to Leningrad to enter a college. Anti-Semitism was at its height and I didn’t want it to have an impact on my son. Anti-Semitism in Russia wasn’t as strong as in Ukraine. Pyotr finished school with a silver medal and was a winner of school Olympiads many times. He entered the Faculty of Physics and Engineering of Optic Mechanic College in Leningrad. He was very fond of reading books by Jewish writers. We collected works by Sholem Aleichem 23 that he enjoyed reading very much. Pyotr is very knowledgeable. Upon graduation he received a mandatory job assignment 24 to the instrument manufacture plant in Uzhhorod. In the late 1980s the plant was closed. Our son went to work with an Internet company. Pyotr married a colleague of his. She is an electronic engineer. They have no children. My son’s friend emigrated to Germany and talked my son into moving there. Of course we wish our son was somewhere near, but he must live his own life. Pyotr and his wife live in Frankfurt am Main, our son studies at Siemens. After he finishes a training course the company will employ him.

Our younger son, Yuri, finished the Electrotechnical Faculty of Lvov Polytechnic College. He worked at the instrument manufacturing plant for some time. Now he works at Hesed. Yuri is married. He has a son named Fulop after my brother, born in 1976. Our sons have non-Jewish wives, but they have happy marriages and that’s what matters for a mother.

We had many friends. Most of them were Jews. Our closest friends were Frida and her husband Voita. Our house was open to all friends. We celebrated birthdays and Soviet holidays and enjoyed getting together to party. We had discussions, sang and danced. Now our home is quiet. Many of our friends live in other countries and we rarely get a chance to meet. Many have passed away. My sister Szerena died in Uzhhorod in 1971. She was buried in the central cemetery. Szerena was an atheist and we didn’t arrange a Jewish funeral for her.

In the evening after work we liked to get together with the family to share the news of the day. At weekends we went for long walks. Our sons joined us willingly. In summer we spent our vacation together. We went to the seashore or rented a house in a village in Subcarpathia. We liked walking in the woods or swimming in a river. Sometimes our friends joined us. In the early 1970s my husband got an opportunity to rent a plot of land. We built a small hut and it became our favorite pastime to stay there. We planted fruit trees, berries and many flowers. We enjoyed working in our garden, but now we are too old and our son Yuri does it.

When Jews began to move to Israel in the 1980s we didn’t quite want to move there. We weren’t young any longer and we didn’t know the language. It’s hard to start a new life or make new friends at this age. We didn’t condemn those that decided otherwise – it’s their life. If our sons decided to go there we would have followed them, but they weren’t enthusiastic about this idea. So we stayed here.

Perestroika

We were enthusiastic about perestroika 24 and it couldn’t have been otherwise. My husband’s two sisters and our friends lived in Israel, but we didn’t dare to correspond with them. My husband and I held official positions and were party members and we might have been punished for corresponding with citizens of capitalist countries. We both left the Party in 1991. At best we would have been expelled from the Party and fired from work. We could only meet our relatives in Hungary since Soviet citizens were allowed to visit Hungary without much bureaucracy.

When we met my husband’s sisters in Budapest in 1987 we told them that if things kept moving in this direction we would be able to visit them in Israel the following year. They burst into laughter and said it couldn’t be true. A year later we visited Israel for the first time. The whole family got together and we said our first toast to Gorbachev 25 for getting this opportunity. It was incredible. It was a miracle that we could travel to Israel from the Soviet Union. We’ve been in Israel four times. It’s a wonderful country. Its residents made this country and are proud of their home country: both younger and older people. Young Jews there are patriots. They are proud to fulfill their military duty rather than trying to avoid it like here. Ancient and modern history is harmonically entwined in Israel. People cherish their history. It’s a pity there’s no peace on this beautiful land. God tests Jews sending trying circumstances of life like He did during World War II. I wish the people of Israel peace and prosperity.

Yuri’s son, our only grandson, went to study in Israel in 1994, at the age of 18. He studied sports medicine at Wingate College in Netanya. He is a 4th-year student. He is doing well there. We are happy that he is there.

Perestroika brought many changes into Jewish life in Uzhhorod. Jews began to get together. They are glad to attend Jewish events. The synagogue was half-empty before perestroika. In 1995 Ari began to go to the synagogue on Sabbath, not because he is religious, but to socialize. He didn’t go to the synagogue before. Hesed was established in 1999. Ari always says: ‘However they curse the government my position never changes – if they do not disturb Jewish life they are good enough’.

Hesed supports us a lot. We were rather hard up and when the director of Hesed offered us free meals in their canteen I felt quite awkward about it and didn’t quite wish to go there, but now I’m so happy about those meals. I’ve become quite lazy. I don’t have to cook now. Of course, I cook on Saturday and Sunday. Perhaps, I feel tired of cooking because I’ve grown older, but we are glad to have meals and get clothes every now and then. But the main thing about Hesed is that they’ve revived our cultural life. We attend wonderful literature and music parties. We like going to Hesed. We already have acquaintances there. Women bring what they cook there. It’s nice to try and compliment one another on this. We are happy about communicating with Jews. Our friends are gone, but we need to socialize. We go to concerts and meet people. I like it a lot. We also speak Yiddish. Ari and I also exchange phrases in Yiddish. I’ve always missed this. Ari is fond of computers and studies computer at Hesed. It’s not just a hobby for him, but also an opportunity to exchange e-mails with his grandson.

We’ve never left this area, but we’ve kind of lived in a few countries. Now we live in independent Ukraine. May there be peace in Ukraine and may there be peace in Israel. I hope so that nobody on earth has to live through the horrors of war again.

Glossary

1 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o’clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war. By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

2 Subcarpathia (also known as Ruthenia, Russian and Ukrainian name Zakarpatie)

Region situated on the border of the Carpathian Mountains with the Middle Danube lowland. The regional capitals are Uzhhorod, Berehovo, Mukachevo, Khust. It belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy until World War I; and the Saint-Germain convention declared its annexation to Czechoslovakia in 1919. It is impossible to give exact historical statistics of the language and ethnic groups living in this geographical unit: the largest groups in the interwar period were Hungarians, Rusyns, Russians, Ukrainians, Czech and Slovaks. In addition there was also a considerable Jewish and Gypsy population. In accordance with the first Vienna Decision of 1938, the area of Subcarpathia mainly inhabited by Hungarians was ceded to Hungary. The rest of the region, was proclaimed a new state called Carpathian Ukraine in 1939, with Khust as its capital, but it only existed for four and a half months, and was occupied by Hungary in March 1939. Subcarpathia was taken over by Soviet troops and local guerrillas in 1944. In 1945, Czechoslovakia ceded the area to the USSR and it gained the name Carpatho-Ukraine. The region became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1945. When Ukraine became independent in 1991, the region became an administrative region under the name of Transcarpathia.

3 Reparation Agreement at the Yalta Conference

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin met at Yalta, Crimea, USSR, in February 1945 to adopt a common policy. Most of the important decisions made remained secret until the end of World War II for military or political reasons. The main demand of the ‘Big Three’ was Germany's unconditional surrender. As part of the Yalta Conference an agreement was concluded, the main goal of which was to compensate Germany's war enemies, and to destroy Germany's war potential. The countries that received the most reparation were those that had borne the main burden of the war (i.e. the Soviet Union). The agreement contained the following: within two years, removal of all potential war-producing materials from German possession, annual deliveries of German goods for a designated amount of time, and the use of German labor. Fifty per cent of the twenty billion dollars that Germany had to pay in reparation damages was to go to the Soviet Union.

4 Pogroms in Ukraine

In the 1920s there were many anti-Semitic gangs in Ukraine. They killed Jews and burnt their houses, they robbed their houses, raped women and killed children.

5 Six-Day-War

The first strikes of the Six-Day-War happened on 5th June 1967 by the Israeli Air Force. The entire war only lasted 132 hours and 30 minutes. The fighting on the Egyptian side only lasted four days, while fighting on the Jordanian side lasted three. Despite the short length of the war, this was one of the most dramatic and devastating wars ever fought between Israel and all of the Arab nations. This war resulted in a depression that lasted for many years after it ended. The Six-Day-War increased tension between the Arab nations and the Western World because of the change in mentalities and political orientations of the Arab nations.

6 Gorky, Maxim (born Alexei Peshkov) (1868-1936)

Russian writer, publicist and revolutionary.

7 Cheder for girls

Model cheders were set up in Russia where girls studied reading and writing.

8 First Czechoslovak Republic (1918-1938)

The First Czechoslovak Republic was created after the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy following World War I. The union of the Czech lands and Slovakia was officially proclaimed in Prague in 1918, and formally recognized by the Treaty of St. Germain in 1919. Ruthenia was added by the Treaty of Trianon in 1920. Czechoslovakia inherited the greater part of the industries of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and the new government carried out an extensive land reform, as a result of which the living conditions of the peasantry increasingly improved. However, the constitution of 1920 set up a highly centralized state and failed to take into account the issue of national minorities, and thus internal political life was dominated by the struggle of national minorities (especially the Hungarians and the Germans) against Czech rule. In foreign policy Czechoslovakia kept close contacts with France and initiated the foundation of the Little Entente in 1921.

9 Russian Revolution of 1917

Revolution in which the tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Empire and, under Lenin, was replaced by the Bolshevik rule. The two phases of the Revolution were: February Revolution, which came about due to food and fuel shortages during World War I, and during which the tsar abdicated and a provisional government took over. The second phase took place in the form of a coup led by Lenin in October/November (October Revolution) and saw the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

10 Keep in touch with relatives abroad

The authorities could arrest an individual corresponding with his/her relatives abroad and charge him/her with espionage, send them to concentration camp or even sentence them to death.

11 Gulag

The Soviet system of forced labor camps in the remote regions of Siberia and the Far North, which was first established in 1919. However, it was not until the early 1930s that there was a significant number of inmates in the camps. By 1934 the Gulag, or the Main Directorate for Corrective Labor Camps, then under the Cheka's successor organization the NKVD, had several million inmates. The prisoners included murderers, thieves, and other common criminals, along with political and religious dissenters. The Gulag camps made significant contributions to the Soviet economy during the rule of Stalin. Conditions in the camps were extremely harsh. After Stalin died in 1953, the population of the camps was reduced significantly, and conditions for the inmates improved somewhat.

12 Anti-Jewish laws in Hungary

Following similar legislation in Nazi Germany, Hungary enacted three Jewish laws in 1938, 1939 and 1941. The first law restricted the number of Jews in industrial and commercial enterprises, banks and in certain occupations, such as legal, medical and engineering professions, and journalism to 20% of the total number. This law defined Jews on the basis of their religion, so those who converted before the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, as well as those who fought in World War I, and their widows and orphans were exempted from the law. The second Jewish law introduced further restrictions, limiting the number of Jews in the above fields to 6%, prohibiting the employment of Jews completely in certain professions such as high school and university teaching, civil and municipal services, etc. It also forbade Jews to buy or sell land and so forth. This law already defined Jews on more racial grounds in that it regarded baptized children that had at least one non-converted Jewish parent as Jewish. The third Jewish law prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews, and defined anyone who had at least one Jewish grandparent as Jewish.

13 Hasid

The follower of the Hasidic movement, a Jewish mystic movement founded in the 18th century that reacted against Talmudic learning and maintained that God’s presence was in all of one’s surroundings and that one should serve God in one’s every deed and word. The movement provided spiritual hope and uplifted the common people. There were large branches of Hasidic movements and schools throughout Eastern Europe before World War II, each following the teachings of famous scholars and thinkers. Most had their own customs, rituals and life styles. Today there are substantial Hasidic communities in New York, London, Israel and Antwerp.

14 Ispolkom

After the tsar’s abdication (March, 1917), power passed to a Provisional Government appointed by a temporary committee of the Duma, which proposed to share power to some extent with councils of workers and soldiers known as ‘soviets’. Following a brief and chaotic period of fairly democratic procedures, a mixed body of socialist intellectuals known as the Ispolkom secured the right to ‘represent’ the soviets. The democratic credentials of the soviets were highly imperfect to begin with: peasants - the overwhelming majority of the Russian population - had virtually no say, and soldiers were grossly over-represented. The Ispolkom’s assumption of power turned this highly imperfect democracy into an intellectuals’ oligarchy.

15 Campaign against ‘cosmopolitans’

The campaign against ‘cosmopolitans’, i.e. Jews, was initiated in articles in the central organs of the Communist Party in 1949. The campaign was directed primarily at the Jewish intelligentsia and it was the first public attack on Soviet Jews as Jews. ‘Cosmopolitans’ writers were accused of hating the Russian people, of supporting Zionism, etc. Many Yiddish writers as well as the leaders of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee were arrested in November 1948 on charges that they maintained ties with Zionism and with American ‘imperialism’. They were executed secretly in 1952. The anti-Semitic Doctors’ Plot was launched in January 1953. A wave of anti-Semitism spread through the USSR. Jews were removed from their positions, and rumors of an imminent mass deportation of Jews to the eastern part of the USSR began to spread. Stalin’s death in March 1953 put an end to the campaign against ‘cosmopolitans’.

16 Doctors’ Plot

The Doctors’ Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin’s reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

17 Khrushchev, Nikita (1894-1971)

Soviet communist leader. After Stalin’s death in 1953, he became first secretary of the Central Committee, in effect the head of the Communist Party of the USSR. In 1956, during the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev took an unprecedented step and denounced Stalin and his methods. He was deposed as premier and party head in October 1964. In 1966 he was dropped from the Party's Central Committee.

18 Twentieth Party Congress

At the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 Khrushchev publicly debunked the cult of Stalin and lifted the veil of secrecy from what had happened in the USSR during Stalin’s leadership.

19 1956

It designates the Revolution, which started on 23rd October 1956 against Soviet rule and the communists in Hungary. It was started by student and worker demonstrations in Budapest started in which Stalin’s gigantic statue was destroyed. Moderate communist leader Imre Nagy was appointed as prime minister and he promised reform and democratization. The Soviet Union withdrew its troops which had been stationing in Hungary since the end of World War II, but they returned after Nagy’s announcement that Hungary would pull out of the Warsaw Pact to pursue a policy of neutrality. The Soviet army put an end to the rising on 4th November and mass repression and arrests started. About 200,000 Hungarians fled from the country. Nagy, and a number of his supporters were executed. Until 1989, the fall of the communist regime, the Revolution of 1956 was officially considered a counter-revolution.

20 Prague Spring

The term Prague Spring designates the liberalization period in communist-ruled Czechoslovakia between 1967-1969. In 1967 Alexander Dubcek became the head of the Czech Communist Party and promoted ideas of ‘socialism with a human face’, i.e. with more personal freedom and freedom of the press, and the rehabilitation of victims of Stalinism. In August 1968 Soviet troops, along with contingents from Poland, East Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria, occupied Prague and put an end to the reforms.

21 Young Octobrist

In Russian Oktyabrenok, or ‘pre-pioneer’, designates Soviet children of seven years or over preparing for entry into the pioneer organization.

22 Komsomol

Communist youth political organization created in 1918. The task of the Komsomol was to spread of the ideas of communism and involve the worker and peasant youth in building the Soviet Union. The Komsomol also aimed at giving a communist upbringing by involving the worker youth in the political struggle, supplemented by theoretical education. The Komsomol was more popular than the Communist Party because with its aim of education people could accept uninitiated young proletarians, whereas party members had to have at least a minimal political qualification.

23 Sholem Aleichem (pen name of Shalom Rabinovich (1859-1916)

Yiddish author and humorist, a prolific writer of novels, stories, feuilletons, critical reviews, and poem in Yiddish, Hebrew and Russian. He also contributed regularly to Yiddish dailies and weeklies. In his writings he described the life of Jews in Russia, creating a gallery of bright characters. His creative work is an alloy of humor and lyricism, accurate psychological and details of everyday life. He founded a literary Yiddish annual called Di Yidishe Folksbibliotek (The Popular Jewish Library), with which he wanted to raise the despised Yiddish literature from its mean status and at the same time to fight authors of trash literature, who dragged Yiddish literature to the lowest popular level. The first volume was a turning point in the history of modern Yiddish literature. Sholem Aleichem died in New York in 1916. His popularity increased beyond the Yiddish-speaking public after his death. Some of his writings have been translated into most European languages and his plays and dramatic versions of his stories have been performed in many countries. The dramatic version of Tevye the Dairyman became an international hit as a musical (Fiddler on the Roof) in the 1960s.

24 Mandatory job assignment in the USSR

Graduates of higher educational institutions had to complete a mandatory 2-year job assignment issued by the institution from which they graduated. After finishing this assignment young people were allowed to get employment at their discretion in any town or organization.

25 Perestroika (Russian for restructuring)

Soviet economic and social policy of the late 1980s, associated with the name of Soviet politician Mikhail Gorbachev. The term designated the attempts to transform the stagnant, inefficient command economy of the Soviet Union into a decentralized, market-oriented economy. Industrial managers and local government and party officials were granted greater autonomy, and open elections were introduced in an attempt to democratize the Communist Party organization. By 1991, perestroika was declining and was soon eclipsed by the dissolution of the USSR.

26 Gorbachev, Mikhail (1931- )

Soviet political leader. Gorbachev joined the Communist Party in 1952 and gradually moved up in the party hierarchy. In 1970 he was elected to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, where he remained until 1990. In 1980 he joined the politburo, and in 1985 he was appointed general secretary of the party. In 1986 he embarked on a comprehensive program of political, economic, and social liberalization under the slogans of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). The government released political prisoners, allowed increased emigration, attacked corruption, and encouraged the critical reexamination of Soviet history. The Congress of People’s Deputies, founded in 1989, voted to end the Communist Party’s control over the government and elected Gorbachev executive president. Gorbachev dissolved the Communist Party and granted the Baltic states independence. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States in 1991, he resigned as president. Since 1992, Gorbachev has headed international organizations.

Rebeca Gershon-Levi

Rebeca Gershon-Levi
Sofia
Bulgaria
Interviewer: Dimitar Bozhilov
Date of interview: January 2002

My family background
Growing up in Plovdiv
Our religious life
My life in Sofia
During the war
My return to Sofia
My first husband
My second husband
Glossary

My family is from Plovdiv. My mother’s and father’s parents were born and lived in that town. I was also born there on 29th May 1923. My childhood in that town was wonderful. Plovdiv was a quiet, cozy and very well-organized town. I don’t remember the house where I was born because we lived in rented places then and moved several times during my childhood. It was quite usual at that time to live under rent and most families lived that way. My life in Plovdiv was like a fairy-tale. Our family wasn’t very rich but I had a very happy childhood. I found Plovdiv very charming.

My family background

My maternal great-grandfather lived in Pazardjik and was a Greek citizen. His ancestors had been from Greece. No one in my mother’s family ever told me when he had come to Bulgaria and from where exactly. I remember that his daughter, my grandmother, Mazaltov Haim Kalet, nee Sidi, who was a Greek citizen, had to go to the municipal offices in Plovdiv every year in order to certify her passport. My mother, her sister and brother got Bulgarian citizenship after they turned 18.

My maternal great-grandmother was named Estrea. She spoke both Ladino and Bulgarian. She lived to a very old age – with one of her daughters in the town of Yambol. She used to visit my grandmother in Plovdiv. We even went to health resorts together – my great-grandmother, my grandmother and I. I remember that my maternal grandmother wrote in Ladino. She was a very calm and kind woman. She used to tell me fairy-tales – she was very eloquent and had an endless list of tales. My favorite ones were those from the ‘A Thousand and One Nights’ collection. My grandma was very intelligent and good and everybody in Plovdiv respected and loved her a lot. She died after we had already moved to live in Sofia, when I was in the 7th class of high school.

I remember one of my great-grandfather’s brothers who lived in Plovdiv and he was a very impressive man. He lived on the main street and I often visited him. He lived alone; there was only one housemaid.

My mother Sarina Avram Gershon, nee Kalef, had a brother and a sister – Shmuel and Ernesta, and my father, Albert Haim Gershon, had three brothers and a sister from his father’s first marriage – Shimon, Samuel, Josef and Matilda. My father’s mother had died very early and his father married again after that. My father had two stepsisters and a stepbrother – Mari, Victoria and Leon.

My paternal grandfather, Haim Avram Gershon, was born in Plovdiv. He was an agent but my father and his brother supported him mostly as they were merchants and had a big shop. My paternal grandparents lived in Plovdiv on Sahat tepe [one of the hills in the town of Plovdiv] in an old Bulgarian house with a large chardak [a wooden penthouse] and a big courtyard. The house had a solid stonewall. The atmosphere there was wonderful. I loved going there a lot. There were three large rooms in the house that impressed me very much because I lived in a more humble lodging at that time. I loved to have breakfast on the sofra [a traditional low table] and eat popara [popular breakfast of crumbled bread and fresh milk].

My paternal grandfather had Bulgarian friends mostly. His circle of friends was totally Bulgarian and people used to visit us for lunch or dinner every day. He was a strict, handsome man, but not very tall. I respected him a lot because he was really strict but also a very caring person.

There was a small square near my grandparents’ house and the local circus performed there. I adored going to the circus and watch the animal shows. The economic school and the mixed high school, where I studied for a year before we moved to Sofia, were also in that part of town.

My maternal grandfather died when I was just six years old. I remember that I heard some women talking about that on the street while I was going for a walk in town. I was a very little girl then and I couldn’t understand very well what was going on. I understood it only after my mother explained it to me. According to our traditions women don’t go to the cemetery so I don’t remember my grandfather’s funeral. [Rebeca Gershon thinks that women should not go to the cemetery]

Growing up in Plovdiv

We lived in several places in Plovdiv. We moved from place to place very often because we lived in rented places. The house where we lived first was on the main street, Tsar Osvoboditel opposite Bunardjika [one of the hills in Plovdiv]. After that we went to live on Stranford Street on Sahat tepe. We lived twice on Tsar Osvoboditel Street – once at the beginning of the street and once at its end. The first time our landlords were Jewish and they lived on the upper floor and we lived on the first floor. My brother, Haim Albert Gershon, was born in that house.

I clearly remember that when we lived in the house opposite Bunardjika there wasn’t electricity there and my father used a lantern at nighttime. We used to have a housemaid – a young girl who helped in the household. One evening on our way back home from some visit I started to tease and pull the girl, who was carrying my baby brother then. She dropped him. Fortunately he wasn’t hurt but I got a big thrashing.

I remember another incident that happened in that house. My brother was a very beautiful baby. He had curly hair, blue eyes and big cheeks. I started to be jealous of him because all the attention at home was given to him. One day I asked my mother to let me carry him for a while and along with a cousin of mine we went out onto the terrace. We had bought big red sweets and we tried to stick it in the baby’s mouth. We almost choked him and we were punished afterwards.

My brother was born on 16th January 1929 in Plovdiv. He went to kindergarten there. He started school in Sofia and he got as far as the 3rd class when they interned us to Pleven. Practically he didn’t manage to get education while he lived in Bulgaria. He went to work after we came back to Sofia. He was a skilful boy and he started to work in a shoemaker’s workshop. He made a pair of lovely tourist shoes for everyone in the family before he left for Israel. He got interested in mechanics after he went to Israel, he graduated as a ‘mazger’ [Hebrew for mechanic] there and after that he became a teacher. He has created big construction projects in metallurgy.

I studied in the Jewish school till the 4th class. It was difficult for me there and I started begging my mother to transfer me to another school. I found it really hard to learn a poem in Hebrew by heart. I still don’t speak Hebrew and I’m embarrassed because of that when I go to Israel.

We lived on Karnegi Street and just opposite us was Karnegi school. I changed to that junior high school. Our house was then just between Bunardjika hill and the fire brigades. That’s a very nice quarter of Plovdiv. We lived on the second floor at a cousin’s of my mother, and she lived on the first floor. Another Jewish family that had come from Greece lived on the second floor as well. I started my high school education in Plovdiv – in the 4th class in the mixed school. I moved to Sofia in the summer of 1938 and I went on studying here.

In the last period before we left for Sofia, we lived on Bunardjika hill, opposite the main entrance, on Tsar Osvoboditel Street. It was a twin house, one house split in two. A Greek family lived in one half of the house: a Greek woman and her husband, their two sons, who were students and one daughter. My mother, my father, my brother and I lived in the other half. We had different entrances to the house. The house itself had a big courtyard and lots of plants in it and the Greek woman took care of them. I remember that she used to be very suspicious of us at first –she probably thought that we were going to do harm to her plants – but after she got to know us better, she became our friend. The Greek woman was a Protestant and she tried to persuade my mother to go to the Protestant church gatherings with her. I used to join her because it was interesting for me to watch their meetings and the atmosphere there – the people sitting on the benches and singing psalms – because you can’t see that in our synagogues. This house no more exists now; an apartment block has been built there instead.

I loved to walk around Plovdiv and I had the chance to do so a lot. My favorite places were Sahat tepe, Bunardjika and Maritsa River. A bunch of children used to gather and wander around town. We played a lot of games – I used to play with small balls with the boys, for instance. We took the balls that came with bottles of lemonade or soda. We used to play ‘thieves and policemen’ a lot. Another interesting game was ‘Ghosts’: We used to gather in different houses and pull down the curtains. Then we started to summon ghosts until we seemed to see something and usually one of us got very scared and cried out loud. Of course we used to do that only in our parents’ absence. We used to play hide-and-seek also.

I remember that when we lived on Tsar Osvoboditel Street I used to gather some children and tell them that if we dug the ground we would reach the center of the Earth. I imagined that there was a boat there and we could sail away on it. We started to dig and of course we found nothing. We loved to pick plums and other fruits from the trees in our neighbors’ courtyards and they often scolded us for that.

I’ve always spoken with my friends in Bulgarian. My grandma and my mother spoke Ladino but I thought this language was archaic. We didn’t speak Hebrew. I started to be interested in Ladino just recently because I realized the connection with Spanish.

In my family we used to go shopping on Wednesdays and Thursdays and on Fridays we did the cooking. We didn’t cook on Saturdays, but we turned on the lights and listened to the radio. My family observed the kashrut. We always shopped in shops where the rabbi had put his stamp; we used to eat veal mostly. We ate pork after 9th September 1944 1 for the first time. There was a great food crisis at that time: I got some pork from my work place, I brought it home and that was when my mother cooked pork for the first time.

Our religious life

When I was a little girl, my maternal grandmother used to take me to the synagogue. I remember that she used to take me on the holiday of Yom Kippur – on that day we don’t eat the whole day and then we have dinner at six o’clock in the evening. Then friends and relatives forgive each other their sins. That holiday is devoted both to the living and the dead. After the priest had finished his speech in the synagogue we bit into a big quince and that was the first thing we ate that day. It was a great success if the children managed not to eat the whole day.

We always celebrated Pesach. Then the oldest member of the family reads the prayer that tells the story of the liberation of the Jewish people from the Egyptian invasion. My father was the oldest in our home, but sometimes we used to gather with my mother’s or father’s relatives and then my grandfathers read the prayer. I was more attached to my mother’s family than to my father’s relatives. I felt they were more curious and interested in things.

We observed Chanukkah as well. We had a special chandelier that we used to light on the holiday. We always prepared big festive tables. On Purim they always gave me a small bag filled with different fruits – oranges, apples, dates and walnuts. They used to give us some money, too, and we went straight to the roundabouts and spent it there.

My father perceived religion in his own way. He was mostly interested in politics – he was a great dabbler in politics. My father wasn’t very religious. He became more religious after he went to Israel. He learned Hebrew there and he used to read newspapers. My brother also learned Hebrew perfectly – he used to teach in Hebrew. My father was very studious and he read a lot, though he hadn’t gone to school. He was a thorough Zionist and a revisionist and I often argued with him because I had left-wing convictions. My father and my brother didn’t have enough time to read and educate themselves. Despite that they both had a thorough knowledge of certain matters. They hadn’t studied anything special but knew a lot when it came to geography, history and economics.

My father was a merchant. He traded with haberdashery and worked with villagers mostly. He used to sell ribbons, laces and buttons but unfortunately he didn’t sell any toys. His shop was on the merchant street near the mosque and Maritsa pharmacy. It was a two-storied shop. The first floor was something like a reception-room and the trade articles were on the second floor. My father liked to receive guests on the first floor. That’s why he always had some fresh pastry or other small things to eat with him. As I mentioned before, my father was a devoted revisionist and a Zionist and he was a member of the ‘Jabotinsky’ organization [see Revisionist Zionism] 2 – a Jewish organization that propagandized the idea of reconstructing Israel’s territories via military actions. The organization is named after its founder – Vladimir Jabotinsky 3. Jews in Plovdiv had various political convictions at the time. My father was an extreme right-winger. I remember that there was a member in the organization in which my father participated whose name was Pasi – he was the grandfather of the present minister of foreign affairs Solomon Pasi.

My father used to spend a lot of money on the political meetings in his shop and that’s why he went bankrupt when the crisis of the 1930s 4 started in 1929. My brother was born the same year and that was when poverty started. We had a housemaid as long as we lived on Stranford Street. After that we didn’t have the opportunity to afford a housemaid and my mother started to do the housekeeping on her own.

Plovdiv was like a Jewish country-town for me. I felt very cozy there. My relatives were very united and they used to gather very often and supported each other a lot. Besides I was the only granddaughter in the 1920s and everybody was very kind to me. I lived a carefree life then and I didn’t think about the political and economical situation in Bulgaria at all. I was always well dressed and satisfied.

We used to go on excursions out of Plovdiv every weekend. Sometimes we left on Friday evening. We traveled in drays. We went to Komatovo, Kuklino and Markovo. We passed through lovely walnut forests that unfortunately no longer exist today. We used to bring special barbeque grills with us and light a fire. My parents loved these excursions very much.

Very often – usually on Saturdays – we went to the Casino, a place on Bunardjika hill. We lived nearby and we used to sit together with other families and listen to the music. The singer and dancer Djip was very popular then. We, the children, received some money on Saturdays and we used to buy some food for ourselves – fried livers, grilled rissoles, baked maize. We also went to the confectioner’s shop. Plovdiv was a horn of plenty!

My life in Sofia

My parents and my brother went to live in Sofia in 1937 and I stayed in Plovdiv till the next year. I lived with my uncle Shmuel and I was studying in the mixed school in Plovdiv until I left for Sofia. My life in Plovdiv was charming and I used to cry a lot when I moved to Sofia. I was out of my reasons for entire six months. I went to Sofia in the summer of 1938 and I thought it was very miserable. All was strange and unpleasant to me. I went through this change with great difficulty. After a few months I went to Plovdiv again because it was summer vacation time. I managed to adapt to the new situation only after I came back to Sofia again and I already had close classmates. I used to go to the library club and I had friends there, too.

The first place where my parents settled in Sofia was on Opalchenska Street and after that they moved into the house of a classmate of mine, Ani Pasturkova, on Tsar Simeon Street. Later, in 1943, we were interned to Pleven. I remember one air raid on Sofia. We lived on Tsar Simeon Street then. It was a three-floor house. The raid was terrible. We hid in the basement of a neighboring house. They bombed the railway station and our house was near it and we could hear all the thunder very clearly. In Pleven we saw only squadrons of airplanes flying to Sofia.

My father started to work as a traveling salesman in a chocolate factory in Sofia. He became close to the owner, who realized that my father was a talented and responsible person. My father used to travel around the country and he was in charge of the production disposal in the whole country. My father didn’t have the time to be in contact with the Jews of Sofia. He traveled all the time and never stayed in town for a long time. He was a sociable person and had friends all over the country. The owners’ living standards couldn’t possibly be compared to ours. They were prosperous villagers. His daughter was my classmate in Third Girls’ high school. We didn’t have the financial opportunity to settle in our own home in Sofia. We only had my father’s salary as my brother and I were still students.

During the war

I felt the first anti-Semitic moods in 1939 when the Law for the Protection of the Nation 5 was passed. I remember that one day I was taking a walk with a friend of mine on Hristo Botev Boulevard. Suddenly a group of Branniks 6 started to bother us and then fortunately my friend, who wasn’t Jewish, asked an officer, who was passing by, for help. I felt really humiliated wearing the Jewish badge. I was very lucky that I wasn’t violated and maltreated.

The law from 1939 affected those who owned some real-estate property first. We had neither money nor property and even though my father was working for a Bulgarian employer, we also started to feel the stagnation.

In 1942-1943 Brannik was an official organization. I had a classmate in high school that became a member of that organization. It happened that I met her many years after that again. She was a repulsive person. I met her accidentally at the entrance of the Court of Justice. I was with my second husband who had known her from his work place. My husband kissed her on the cheek without knowing what I thought of her. I reacted emotionally and slapped him in the face. I was a trainee in the Court of Justice at that time and my husband was a lawyer. My husband forgave me, though with great difficulty.

I graduated from high school in 1941. We started wearing badges in 1942 so that it would be clear that we were Jews, but despite that we didn’t loose our courage and I tried to start work in Sofia as I had studied to be a typist. We didn’t have the financial means to settle in our own home in Sofia. But in 1943 we were interned to Pleven. We had to sell all the belongings from our house on Tsar Simeon Street where we lived then.

My relatives from Plovdiv were not interned from town. They were put under a restrictive regime. They weren’t allowed to go to work or leave town.

My aunt Ernesta was married to a rabbi in Burgas. He was a Greek citizen. When the persecutions against Jews started, the district governor of Burgas advised him to leave the country so that he wouldn’t be sent to the concentration camp. So the family packed and left for Turkey in 1942 and from there to Israel. My aunt already had two children then. She didn’t live a happy life in Israel and she divorced her husband. We used to write letters to each other and that’s how I learned that. I told her that I would do anything possible to help her come back to Bulgaria if she wanted to, but she didn’t. She stayed in Tel Aviv and later she died of leukemia. I loved this aunt of mine very much.

We were first accommodated in a school in Pleven and after that we were allowed to rent a lodging – just one room in fact. We lived by the road that was leading to Kailuka prison [see Kailuka concentration camp] 7. This region was in the suburbs of the town. Our landlords were very friendly and they invited us to pick grapes from their fruit garden. We used to eat in the public canteen [Jewish newcomers in the town received free food at a certain place at a certain exact hour]. I started work in a shoe factory. I became a so-called ‘saiadjiika’ because I was among the ones that made the ‘sai’, the upper parts of the shoes.

I had a very unpleasant time in Pleven. Only some people around me were good. I worked with many other girls in the shoe factory; other people used to go and work in the vineyards. One of the masters in the factory repressed me quite a lot – he kept watching me and bothered me all the time. He tormented me and when he was in a bad mood he made me go out and collect the leather cuttings. There was no reason whatsoever to do that. Finally, the factory owner approached me and advised me to quit and so I did. I went to another factory, where the owner was a fascist. Fortunately there was a nice Jewish man of my father’s age who was working there and he helped me become acquainted with the atmosphere and protected me all the time. Thanks God, 9th September [1944] came and I quit my job there.

The factory master was impudent enough to come to Sofia to look for me. I threatened him with an arrest. I couldn’t understand how a grown up man with a family could do such a thing. So, that was quite a bad period for me. Thanks to our Jewish ability to organize ourselves, we managed to go through it. We used to gather every Saturday and Sunday without any special reason for doing so. We even assembled a music band in which the musicians played the violin. We used to sing and give lectures.

Some very curious and paradoxical things happened in Pleven. I met three young men who treated me as if I was a princess though they were extreme left-wingers. One of them was even a legionnaire [see Bulgarian Legions] 8. They protected me and one of them was even in love with me and gave me a beautiful bracelet as a gift. We used to go for walks together, I visited his house, and I trusted him very much. They treated me like real gentlemen.

I met a member of the famous and rich family Aseo in Pleven. This family owned big real-estate properties in Sofia, including the most famous cinema in town. He was a young man and still a student, but his hair had turned gray. We became close but after we returned to Sofia our lives separated.

My father, his brother and my maternal uncle were sent to forced labor camps 9 during the Holocaust. My maternal uncle hadn’t been interned, but he was sent to a ghetto that was built especially for Jews. My father was sent to the forced labor groups in Belene [a town in North Bulgаria]. We understood where he was allocated much later and we couldn’t contact him while he was in the forced labor groups. We didn’t have any other funds but my small salary at that time. My father was a very tough man and he was sick only once when he was already old. In 1988 he had a severe stroke and was put in a medical care center.

My return to Sofia

I returned to Sofia in October 1944. The trains were crowded. After 9th September 1944 I was invited straight to the district administration of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in Pleven. I worked there and used to type reports. When it was announced that we could go back to Sofia, I went to the district governor who was a very nice man and gave me several recommendation letters. When I came back to Sofia I went to the Police Department on Lavov most Square. An amiable man accepted me to work in the passport department there.

My parents came back a little time after me and found accommodation in a two-storied house on Tsar Ivan-Assen II Street. I received accommodation from the Ministry of Foreign Affairs on Graf Ignatiev and Tolbuhin Blvd [today Vasil Levski]. The lodging on Ivan Assen II Street consisted of two rooms only, that’s why we went to live on 2, Tolbuhin Blvd in the ex-lodging of a colleague of mine. We shared that place with a compatriot of mine – a Jewish woman who didn’t want us at first – she even put out our luggage twice. We became good friends in the end. She lived in one of the rooms and my family – my mother, my father, my brother and I – had a kitchen, a living-room and a bedroom. The apartment was enormous. After my parents moved to Israel, I was offered to buy the apartment, but my first husband, Miuntzer Blagoev Zahariev, didn’t agree because he believed that everything would become state property. Later we had to vacate the apartment because the owner’s sister wanted to sell it. Meanwhile my parents went to Israel. After that my first husband and I moved to Marin Drinov Street.

I haven’t had any problems at my workplace because of my Jewish origin. I remember an incident when a female officer at the Police Department was telling a story about how she had been chased out by her landlord. There was a certain practice then that the authorities used to settle the newcomers in Sofia in the houses and apartments of other people. She called the owner of the lodging where she was settled ‘a dirty Jew’. The same had happened to that officer. I stood up and slapped her face. I was also settled in such a lodging on Tolbuhin Boulevard at that time. I would have never called my landlord that way, even if she had been Bulgarian. After that incident my boss threatened me with court procedures. It all turned out fine in the end and we even remained friends.

The BCP [Bulgarian Communist Party] took a party decision regarding the departure of Jews – everyone could go. The director of the Police Department then called to tell me that even if I applied for departure they wouldn’t let me go for at least five or six years. And they really only let me see my relatives after 13 years – in 1963. After the coup d’etat of 9th September 1944 I had left-wing political convictions [pro-communist]. Although many compatriots of mine left, I myself didn’t want to. I made some pro-forma steps just to please my parents.

After 9th September 1944 I took steps so that my brother could go and specialize in the Bata 10 company school in the Czech Republic. He didn’t get a good record form his work and he didn’t manage to leave. Maybe if he had got a good record and would have gone to the Czech Republic, he wouldn’t have gone to Israel that soon. That was a turning point in his life.

After Israel was founded, the Jews started to leave Bulgaria. My parents left in 1949 and my relatives from Plovdiv in 1948. There was a mass aliyah 11 after that and all my friends left. Just 10,000 out of 45,000 people stayed here, and I don’t know if there are even 5,000 Jews left in Bulgaria today. My parents were put in so-called ‘srikove’ – special barracks. My brother didn’t want to be settled in a lodging in the town and his first home was in Iafo – in the newly-built part of the city.

My father started work in Israel immediately. The conditions were severe because there wasn’t enough work for all newcomers. They looked for work at many places. My brother tells this sad story about how my father and he went from Pardes Hanah, where they had been in the camps, right down to Haifa to look for work but they didn’t manage to find any. They slept in the open air and had to come back in the end. My brother worked in the lime-stores and his legs were burnt there. After that my father found work as a manager in a municipal building company called Amidar that built homes for the newcomers. He used to help people settle and they loved and respected him a lot. When he announced that he was going to retire at the age of 78, a large number of people came and asked him to stay. He received a good pension while my mother used to get a social pension. They had their own house and my brother inherited it.

I used to go to the Jewish cultural club Klimentina quite often before the internment to Pleven. I loved to read and I went there mostly for that. Gradually I met different people there who started to educate me. I was in a Jewish circle before the internment. After I came back I went on visiting the Jewish community center and I even used to sing in the choir. But as a police officer my working time was unlimited and that was an obstacle for me to continue going there. My circle then consisted of my colleagues and a friend from school.

My first husband

I met my first husband at work. He wasn’t Jewish. His father was a co-worker of Georgi Dimitrov 12 and Vasil Kolarov [a minister in Dimitrov’s government]. His family left underground for Russia in 1923. They came back from Moscow in 1947. He graduated in law. We got married in December 1949. My parents didn’t attend the ceremony.

I didn’t observe the Jewish holidays then. It wasn’t popular to celebrate holidays after 9th September 1944. Most of my friends were Bulgarians. My husband was a strange person and he lived in isolation. He accepted his brothers only. That’s how I gradually became estranged from my Jewish circle.

I went on living on 2, Tolbuhin Blvd after my parents left. I lived there with my husband. He was in conflict with Valko Chervenkov [then minister of culture] because of some objections that my husband had against the communist party rule. On the other hand his mother lived with the thought that she was an active party functionary. They had even been chased out of their apartment following an order by Valko Chervenkov.

I worked in the Police Department till 1951. They fired my husband then – he worked as an inspector there – because he didn’t get along with the management of the department, and they also fired me. That made me very happy because as long as I was working there I was very restricted and I felt it was a burden for me. We got one extra salary and I remember that I went to the textile shop, which was located where the American Embassy is today, and I bought some wonderful fabrics there. I received job recommendations while Miuntzer got a penalty from the party. My recommendations were for three jobs. I chose the Union of the Bulgarian-Soviet Societies. The other recommendation was for the City Committee of the BCP. The Union of the Bulgarian-Soviet Societies was then located on Mizia Street and I started there as head of international relations. I worked there till my departure for China.

After my husband was fired in 1951, he didn’t start to work again until 1954. I provided for him for four years. In 1954 the minister of finance Kiril Lazarov, who was Miuntzer’s godfather, became a press attaché in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. He recommended Miuntzer for a mandate in China and so we went there. We lived in China for four years. Miuntzer worked as a second secretary of the Bulgarian embassy in China.

When I was in China I used to send my letters to my parents to Miuntzer’s mother in Bulgaria first and then she put them in another envelope and sent them on to Israel. In the times when I was in Bulgaria I used to send my letters to Israel directly.

When I returned from China I didn’t have a job and I decided to finish my education. I had passed exams for law in 1956. After that I had to leave university, as I didn’t have enough time to study and work at the same time. When I came back from China I applied at the dean’s office to continue my education. I graduated in 1967. I started to work with the Jurists Union. I was a legal consultant with the Water Industry company after that and I retired from there.

My second husband

I divorced Miuntzer Blagoev in 1965 because of the great trouble he brought upon himself with his attitude towards the official authorities and the consequences this had for me. I got married for the second time in 1974, to a compatriot of mine; I knew him from my school years. My second husband’s name was Solomon Levi. He brought into the marriage and left me a son and a daughter that I wouldn’t have, had I not met him. I get along very well with them. They have helped me a lot – especially when I had to move to new houses. The years I lived with my second husband were full of many pleasant moments and many excursions to the countryside. After we got married we went on a journey to Israel and on the way back we passed through Greece.

When my parents were still alive I used to go to Israel very often – every two or three years. Sometimes it was difficult to leave. There was an absurd situation – when my mother was on her deathbed, they told me that I could only go to Israel if I was going for a funeral. That happened in 1983. My husband had already died then. My mother died the next year.

During the wars in Israel I supported my people entirely and I could have been punished for that. I believed that this country should exist because so many people had died for it. I was a trainee at the People’s Court then. I remember that a young colleague, whose father was a dean of the Faculty of Economics, used to bring a map of the Near East every day and mark off the military action places with flags.

I remember a meeting when Todor Zhivkov 13 held a speech and he mentioned the Arab-Israeli conflict. One of the people then said that he was ready to go and fight on the Arabian side, but Todor Zhivkov answered ironically to that.

I think that the political developments in Eastern Europe are quite normal. The process of the opening of Eastern Europe is right.

I thought that the Russian military invasion in the Czech Republic was something normal. I thought that things were going in the wrong direction there – I was brought up that way. During the developments in the Czech Republic I was in Israel visiting a friend of mine – a colleague. She was a great communist. She was married to a very amiable doctor. She had been fired and punished for having an affair with one of her superiors, who was falsely accused of being an ‘enemy’. My friend’s name is Beka Francez. When I visited her she expressed an opinion against the intervention of the Soviet Union. I was amazed. That was a heresy for me then. Despite the negative consequences of my marriage to Miuntzer – I always knew that if I only mentioned that I was his wife I would have been fired right away – I believed that I should be true to the party [the BCP].

I retired in 1978. I was very scared straight after 1989 [following the events of 10th November 1989] 14. I thought that we would return to a past that I was afraid of and hated. Then I realized that it was time for a change in both politics and economics. The Soviet Union first signaled for that. I understood then that nothing is just black and white but that there are nuances. Not everyone who isn’t a BSP member is a fascist, and not everyone who is a BSP member is a democrat etc. I started to see people as people, not as members of a certain party. We were very politicized after 1989. I understand now that one man cannot make politics just by himself. I value people by their qualities now.

I live well with my brother’s support and I don’t have to worry about my living now. I gather with the Jewish community. Unfortunately I don’t have many close friends.

Glossary

1 9th September 1944

The day of the communist takeover in Bulgaria. In September 1944 the Soviet Union unexpectedly declared war on Bulgaria. On 9th September 1944 the Fatherland Front, a broad left-wing coalition, deposed the government. Although the communists were in the minority in the Fatherland Front, they were the driving force in forming the coalition, and their position was strengthened by the presence of the Red Army in Bulgaria.

2 Revisionist Zionism

The movement founded in 1925 and led by Vladimir Jabotinsky advocated the revision of the principles of Political Zionism developed by Theodor Herzl, the father of Zionism. The main goals of the Revisionists was to put pressure on Great Britain for a Jewish statehood on both banks of the Jordan River, a Jewish majority in Palestine, the reestablishment of the Jewish regiments, and military training for the youth. The Revisionist Zionists formed the core of what became the Herut (Freedom) Party after the Israeli independence. This party subsequently became the central component of the Likud Party, the largest right-wing Israeli party since the 1970s.

3 Jabotinsky, Vladimir (1880-1940)

Founder and leader of the Revisionist Zionist movement; soldier, orator and a prolific author writing in Hebrew, Russian, and English. During World War I he established and served as an officer in the Jewish Legion, which fought in the British army for the liberation of the Land of Israel from Turkish rule. He was a member of the Board of Directors of the Keren Hayesod, the financial arm of the World Zionist Organization, founded in London in 1920, and was later elected to the Zionist Executive. He resigned in 1923 in protest over Chaim Weizmann’s pro-British policy and founded the Revisionist Zionist movement and the Betar youth movement two years later. Jabotinsky also founded the ETZEL (National Military Organization) during the 1936-39 Arab rebellion in Palestine.

4 Crisis of the 1930s

The world economic crisis that began in 1929 devastated the Bulgarian economy. The social tensions of the 1920s were exacerbated when 200,000 workers lost their jobs, prices fell by 50 percent, dozens of companies went bankrupt, and per capita income among peasants was halved between 1929 and 1933.

5 Law for the Protection of the Nation

A comprehensive anti-Jewish legislation in Bulgaria was introduced after the outbreak of World War II. The ‘Law for the Protection of the Nation’ was officially promulgated in January 1941. According to this law, Jews did not have the right to own shops and factories. Jews had to wear the distinctive yellow star; Jewish houses had to display a special sign identifying it as being Jewish; Jews were dismissed from all posts in schools and universities. The internment of Jews in certain designated towns was legalized and all Jews were expulsed from Sofia in 1943. Jews were only allowed to go out into the streets for one or two hours a day. They were prohibited from using the main streets, from entering certain business establishments, and from attending places of entertainment. Their radios, automobiles, bicycles and other valuables were confiscated. From 1941 on Jewish males were sent to forced labor battalions and ordered to do extremely hard work in mountains, forests and road construction. In the Bulgarian-occupied Yugoslav (Macedonia) and Greek (Aegean Thrace) territories the Bulgarian army and administration introduced extreme measures. The Jews from these areas were deported to concentration camps, while the plans for the deportation of Jews from Bulgaria proper were halted by a protest movement launched by the vice-chairman of the Bulgarian Parliament.

6 Brannik

Pro-fascist youth organization. It started functioning after the Law for the Protection of the Nation was passed in 1941 and the Bulgarian government forged its pro-German policy. The Branniks regularly maltreated Jews.

7 Kailuka concentration camp

Following protests against the deportation of Bulgarian Jews in Kiustendil (8th  March 1943) and Sofia (24th May 1943), Jewish activists, who had taken part in the demonstrations, and their families, several hundred people, were sent to the Somovit concentration camp. The camp had been established on the banks of the Danube, and they were deported there in preparation for their further deportation to the Nazi death camps. About 110 of them, mostly politically active people with predominantly Zionist and left-wing convictions and their relatives, were later redirected to the Kailuka concentration camp. The camp burned down on 10th July 1944 and 10 people died in the fire. It never became clear whether it was an accident or a deliberate sabotage.

8 Bulgarian Legions

Union of the Bulgarian National Legions. Bulgarian fascist movement, established in 1930. Following the Italian model it aimed at building a corporate totalitarian state on the basis of military centralism. It was dismissed in 1944 after the communist take-over.

9 Forced labor camps in Bulgaria

Established under the Council of Ministers’ Act in 1941. All Jewish men between the age of 18–50, eligible for military service, were called up. In these labor groups Jewish men were forced to work 7-8 months a year on different road constructions under very hard living and working conditions.

10 Bata, Tomas (1876-1932)

Czech industrialist. From a small shoemaking business, he built up the largest leather factory in Europe in 1928, producing 75,000 pairs of shoes a day. His son took over the business after his father’s death in a plane crash in 1932, turned the village of Zlin, where the factory was, into an industrial center and provided lots of Czechs with jobs. He expanded the business to Canada in 1939, took a hundred Czech workers along with him, and thus saved them from becoming victims of the Nazi regime.

11 Mass Aliyah

Between September 1944 and October 1948, 7,000 Bulgarian Jews left for Palestine. The exodus was due to deep-rooted Zionist sentiments, a relative alienation from Bulgarian intellectual and political life, and depressed economic conditions. Bulgarian policies toward national minorities were also a factor that motivated emigration. In the late 1940s Bulgaria was anxious to rid itself of national minority groups, such as Armenians and Turks, and thus make its population more homogeneous. Further numbers were allowed to depart in the winter of 1948 and the spring of 1949. The mass exodus continued between 1949 and 1951: 44,267 Jews emigrated to Israel until only a few thousand Jews remained in the country.

11 Dimitrov, Georgi (1882-1949)

A Bulgarian revolutionary, who was the head of the Comintern from 1936 through its dissolution in 1943, secretary general of the Bulgarian Communist Party from 1945 to 1949, and prime minister of Bulgaria from 1946 to 1949. He rose to international fame as the principal defendant in the Leipzig Fire Trial in 1933. Dimitrov put up such a consummate defense that the judicial authorities had to release him.

12 Zhivkov, Todor (1911-1998)

First Secretary of the Central Committee of the ruling Bulgarian Communist Party (1954-1989) and the leader of Bulgaria (1971-1989). His 35 years as Bulgaria's ruler made him the longest-serving leader in any of the Soviet-block nations of Eastern Europe. When communist governments across Eastern Europe began to collapse in 1989, the aged Zhivkov resigned from all his posts. He was placed under arrest in January 1990. Zhivkov was convicted of embezzlement in 1992 and sentenced to seven years' imprisonment. He was allowed to serve his sentence under house arrest.

13 10th November 1989

After 35 years of rule, Communist Party leader Todor Zhivkov was replaced by hitherto Prime Minister Peter Mladenov who changed the Bulgarian Communist Party’s name to Socialist Party. On 17th November 1989 Mladenov became head of state, as successor of Zhivkov. Massive opposition demonstrations in Sofia (with hundreds of thousands participants) calling for democratic reforms followed from 18th November to December 1989. On 7th December the ‘Union of Democratic Forces’ (SDS) was formed consisting of different political organizations and groups.

Maria Eva Feheri

Maria Eva Feheri
Budapest
Hungary
Interviewers: Dora Sardi, Eszter Andor
Date of interview: September 2001

My family background
Growing up
My school years
During the war
Post-war
Glossary

My family background

My paternal grandfather’s name was Jozsef Antal. I think his father lived in Austria, and he was named something like Anton. But I don’t know much about them, only that he was already Antal when, in the 1930s I knew him for a few years, because he died in 1938. I was so little, that when he died, I didn’t understand why so many people were coming. I was just staring, ‘Look how many guests there are!’ and I started to laugh. And my mother told me, ‘Shh, shh, this is because grandfather died’. After that, they hardly talked about him. Grandmother always cried, ‘Poor papa!’ He wasn’t too old, he must have been about 60. As far as I know he was born in Budapest. I think he was a kind of trader. I’m sure he didn’t have a shop here. He may have been an employee at some kind of company.

Whether my grandfather was religious, I don’t know, but the two of them, my grandfather and grandmother, observed holidays, I think; at least, they kept the fast [on Yom Kippur]. Perhaps they even went to the synagogue, but I’m not sure about that. They didn’t tell me about it because my father had converted to Christianity. It’s certain that my father was already non-religious. My grandmother kept the fasts even after the war, and there were those kinds of meals at holidays. As far as I know, I knew matzah balls from there. When I grew older, after the war, I fasted with her in solidarity, despite the fact that we had already converted. And I think she was kosher at first, because it seemed as if she cooked things separately, but then she may have put up with the fact that it was not like that in our house.

Grandmother Ella Kohn was from Szekesfehervar. I think she might have met my grandfather there. My grandmother was a housewife. Two children were born: my father and his younger brother, and she raised them. After my grandfather’s death, she moved to our place and lived with us until her death. She died at the beginning of the 1950s, and she was around 80 years old. Before the war she had a separate room, but she didn’t have one afterwards, she had only a small vestibule because our flat had been bombed. As a doctor, my father got an official residence room in Rokus hospital. There we were, the four of us and grandmother in the vestibule on a divan-bed. It was pretty hard for all of us, living in the one-bedroom apartment. Obviously there was tension because there wasn’t a very good relationship between mother-in-law and daughter-in-law. My mother was terribly troubled by grandmother’s having moved in, and that grandma always observed what she was doing, and what kind of company she kept.

My father’s brother was Jeno Antal. I think he was two or three years younger than my father. He went to America in 1938. He was a violinist and he played in the Rock Quartet, which is said to have been a renowned quartet. He got married back when he was still at home, to Katalin Bant, daughter of Bant, who owned the bread factory, and they never had children. They wanted to bring us to the US. It was discussed back in 1941-42, but the Americans didn’t want to let us in. Jeno Antal lived and worked up until the age of 80-82, then he died in America. Once he visited us here.

My maternal grandfather was Rezso Rasko. He died about the time I was born, and he must have been around 60 or 70 years old, because they said he died young here in Budapest, after having a tooth extracted. I think he was from Budapest, and I know he was a wood-agent. Grandmother Julia Altmann was from Transylvania. When they came to Budapest, I don’t know. My mum was born in Kezdivasarhely, but if I’m correct, her sisters were not. I think they came to Budapest around World War I, or even before. My grandmother’s father was Christian. Her mother, when she became a widow, already had a big daughter, and together with this Jewish girl, this Jewish woman got married to a very decent Christian farm manager. Because her mother was Jewish, my grandmother was Jewish, too. My grandmother believed in God and prayed. I remember a prayer book, in which she’d put a lock of my hair, as the first grandchild. But my grandparents couldn’t have been very observant. Grandmother didn’t work, she gave birth to five children, and brought them up. She was a wonderful grandmother, a real brood-hen; she was always talking about the five children, about how hard it was with that many girls. My mother and her brother were always fighting. There were big pillow fights and they played hide-and-seek in the dark. My mother also told me about it when I was sick and I really envied all those children; how good it must have been. Grandmother lived with her daughter Margit most of the time. She always came over to us, and looked after me and my younger brother. She was 81 or 82 years old, when she died, in or around 1958.

My grandmother had five children. The first daughter was my mother, Erzsebet Rasko, born in 1904. Two years later Margit was born. She worked for my grandfather’s wood agency and she was a businesswoman until the end of her life. She got married to a man named Lajos Biro, who died in the war, in forced labor, I think. She has one son. In 1956 she went first to Austria, then she lived in London, and decided that from then on, they would keep it a secret that they were Jews. She died something like six or eight years ago.

Next was Laszlo, he was born in 1909. I believe he was employed in the wood trade. He had a wife and a daughter. Laszlo died in the war. He tried to run away from forced labor and was shot by an Arrow Cross man. His family survived, his wife remarried, and in 1956 they emigrated to America.

After him came Rene. She was born in 1910 and she is still alive and lives in London. She got married to a man named Vadasz before the war. This Vadasz family was taken away by the Germans, despite the fact that they gave lots of money to the Gestapo, because it was a rich family. She also went to London with Margit in 1956, and she learnt physiotherapy there. She has one child.

The last one was Katalin, or Kato, she was born in 1915 or 1916. She had a high school diploma, then after the war, she worked at the Red Cross and she made aliyah in 1949. It was a terrible thing that her husband, who was half Jewish, was shot dead by the Arrow Cross 1 men because he was ‘disguised’ in military uniform. Then the Russians came, and one of them caught her and raped her. Then she said she’d had enough of this country and she left in 1949. She got married to a Transylvanian Jewish boy. They lived in Eilat [Israel], then, after the death of her husband, she went into a kibbutz. She has two daughters, Judit and Hanna. Judit is a teacher of handicapped children and she has three children. Hanna still works in the kibbutz now. She also has five children. Kato died recently.

My father Pal Antal was born in Budapest in 1898. First he was an internal specialist, and when they began to dismiss or displace Jewish doctors he learnt pathology, and he was a pathologist until he died. My mother graduated from the Szilagyi high school, and then she studied something to do with horticulture, and she worked in that field. She learnt to tailor and to sew just as a hobby. But she didn’t really have a profession; she was a housewife, and was at home. Later, after the war, she worked in public health as a hospital caretaker, and she completed courses. So she was skilled in hospital management. First she was in the Rokus hospital, then she was the manager of the Bakats Square hospital. My parents had their wedding in 1929, but it was only a civil ceremony.

Growing up

I was born in 1930, my brother Istvan seven years later. I believe they hadn’t planned another child because my mother told me that they went hiking in the Bakony mountain, and it was very cold, and she snuggled up to my father, and she didn’t have pessary on her. They were very happy though that it was a boy and he ate well – because I didn’t eat well – and he was very talented musically. I was very motherly with my brother, but being 14 I didn’t know what to do with a seven-year-old boy. And then, when I was 27 and he was 20, we started to get along very well. We could discuss everything, though we met very rarely. He went to the Academy of Music, and then he played the viola in an orchestra. He had a family and children, too. He died in 1985. He was still very young.

During my childhood we lived in Klotild Street. The apartment was very nice, with three rooms and a hall, and it had a servant’s room; I got the servant’s room later, so that I could have a separate room. We had a very pretty maidservant, named Ami, she did everything: cleaned, washed, cooked and served. Then in 1938, when dad was dismissed, my mother let her go. Then mum cooked and served. We had a big library at home. Dad was very serious, and he let me read everything. He had all kinds of books, including the classics. If he started reading a book and he felt from its style that this wasn’t real literature, he put it down instantly; he had such delicate tastes. Besides all this, he was a good mathematician. My father was on night duty in the old Madach theatre, and he took me there sometimes, and it was free. Mother didn’t go because my brother was small then. They took us to the children’s theatre – Uncle Lakner’s Children’s theatre – once or twice, and to the cinema, once or twice. My parents’ friends were mostly doctors and doctors who played music, and sometimes, in the evening, they performed chamber music at our place.

My father worked as a pharmaceutical advertiser for a German company for a while in 1938. In the 1930s one could foresee that Jews weren’t going to be allowed to stay. That was a very good position. That was one point. The other one was that he used to go out to the counties to tell the medical officers which medicine was good for what. Then he would stay with them for a few days at a time, and it would come out who-and-what he was, when, on Sundays, he didn’t go to church with them. He wasn’t that religious, for him it didn’t mean anything, I think, that he converted to Christianity only because he could support his family better this way. We didn’t talk about this much, unfortunately, and that’s all I know about it.

I think he had converted to Christianity earlier, before my birth. Still, as my mother is Jewish, at the time of my birth I was registered as an Israelite. And in 1937 he had me convert. My brother was already born a Christian, and he wasn’t circumcised.

My school years

I went to elementary school in Szemere Street. I knew I was of Jewish origin and that we wanted to go to America because of this, and perhaps the schoolmistress knew as well, because when it was a Jewish holiday she said to me, ‘You can also stay at home if you want’. She didn’t understand that my father didn’t insist on me being half-Jewish. The schoolmistress took it that we were doing it to save our lives, but that we surely wanted to keep the holidays.

School was in the morning, I had lunch at home, and so did my father. After lunch I did homework and went to skate, and sometimes to my girlfriend’s to play. My father began to give violin lessons because he was a great musician, although that wasn’t what he had studied, and he tried to teach me, but I think it didn’t go well. I would have liked to play the piano very much, but buying a piano was out of the question.

I think I made friends mostly with Jewish girls in school. But it wasn’t just because they were Jews, but because the social classes were very sharply divided: most of the Christian girls were wretched little proles. I had a very good girlfriend who was Christian; her family was very decent and they even made friends with my parents. It didn’t bother me that I didn’t go to Jewish religion classes, while my Jewish girlfriends did. This wasn’t a matter of discussion between the children. I remember instead that it was unpleasant that they were always wealthier because dad had already lost his [good] job, he could already only be an assistant doctor. But merchants and lawyers somehow earned more in the 1930s, and I always had lesser things: I wasn’t bought a bicycle, I didn’t have such good dresses at parties. I think there wasn’t a children’s party at our apartment during my school years because my mother was always afraid that we wouldn’t have enough money.

My auntie Rene regularly invited us to her villa because she had a rich husband and they had a villa in Balatonszeplak [near Lake Balaton]. Grandmother organized it so that she would look after each set of grandchildren for two weeks at a time. In Lepence there was a guesthouse where we went with acquaintances. But we never went abroad.

We had Christmas, but without keeping any of the Christian rites, such as presents, surprises, or a Christmas tree. You could see that my mother wanted to assimilate in this respect. She wasn’t religious either. We didn’t keep any other holidays as far as I know. I don’t remember any Easter, and we didn’t celebrate name days, only birthdays and Christmas. There was never a word about religion, right up until I was admitted to the state high school. Then I was taken to the nuns because the Catholic school admitted Jewish children, even if both parents weren’t Catholics, and the state school didn’t.

When I entered the school of the Ursula order, I had to take part in all kinds of things. In addition to this there was First Communion even in the elementary school. For one or two years I got giddy about how nice a thing the nun’s profession was, because I read about the life of small saints and I decided that I would be like them. I became a very good child then and my mother was surprised. And my father didn’t mind me going to communion in the morning, which had to be attended without breakfast. I think he looked on kindly at these things.

We prayed before and after every lesson, and we put on a veil on Sunday, and it was a great thing to serve at mass, but they only let me do it once. However, it was a problem being a Jew there, and we knew who was and who wasn’t. There was a kind of unspoken acknowledgement there. I was very afraid of the anti-Semite girls. But the class-mistress, Ms. Eva, who was secular, said that if she heard any child discriminating against other children, she would have that child expelled. Once, just as a joke, in order to make the others believe I wasn’t a Jew, I said, ‘Look, this girl has a nose like a Jew’, and to this, the girl said that she would tell Ms. Eva about it. I thought that would be such a scandal. But eventually it came out, after I won a school swimming competition, and the physical education instructor said that I should go along and join KISOP, which was a youth sports club. My mother told me that I shouldn’t go because they ask for the certificate of baptism of four grandparents – because that was in 1943 – and then I had to go to Ms. Emi and tell her that I couldn’t go because not all four of my grandparents were Christian. I was very nervous and I couldn’t sleep at night, for fear of what Ms. Emi was going to say about it. She said, ‘Antal, are you Jewish?’ And that was that. But I couldn’t go swimming any more.

My father taught me to do sports and not be afraid; he let me swim in the cold Danube and took me walking in the forest. We went on hikes with friends on Sundays. There was a steady group of friends. And I know that before we were broke, my father had a motor boat and we went to Szentendre [holiday village in the Curb of the Danube]. Dad bought some kind of land once in Monor before the war and we never saw it again because we didn’t go after it. It was never built on. It was only an investment that he made with the compensation that I believe he got for being dismissed from his work advertising pharmaceuticals.

In high school, I wanted to try what it was like to be a half-boarder. I had a great herd instinct in me and I was very sorry that in the 1940s, when my wealthier girlfriends could afford to go to a children’s holiday resort, my parents couldn’t afford it. Then I tried this half-board status and I ate with them for a few weeks and I studied in the study room in the afternoons. Then I got bored of it, or my mother got bored of it, because they asked for both money and ration tickets.

We had a uniform, like a sailor blouse with stripes and black stockings. Every day we had to wear that. Later when textiles were sold for points, we said that we couldn’t get black stockings, only drab or only knee-stockings. They told us to pull them up so that our knees couldn’t be seen.

I went there until the spring of 1944. I studied hard there. When the yellow star [yellow star in Hungary] 2 came, I decided that I shouldn’t go any more because you couldn’t go to school wearing it. It was March and I didn’t go any more. After the war I went to the Raskai high school and graduated from there in 1949.

During the war

During the war my father was fired from his German company, then from the university hospital, then from Janos hospital – there, too, he was a pathologist, but he worked for free. And then he stopped going in when a decree was issued that Jewish doctors couldn’t enter the hospital area [which was part of the anti-Jewish laws in Hungary] 3. In 1944 he was taken to forced labor. He was in Pocsmegyer for a short while. The Russian troops were already close then and they brought them back home to Pest [Budapest] and took them to the ghetto.

The house that we lived in on Klotild Street became a yellow-star house 4 because there were a lot of Jews there. In October 1944, when the Jews had already been deported from the countryside, the Arrow Cross men went into the yellow-star houses and said that everybody had to come out and they would take us to work. First the men, then a few weeks later the women were taken. And when they wanted to take my mother, too, she lay down on the bed as if she was sick and couldn’t go. A policeman, who looked like he was the father of a family himself, came and told her to get up right then. And she started pretending that she was sick, she couldn’t breathe, so the policeman brought a glass of water. But when she said that she couldn’t get up, he held up his gun and said, ‘Get up or I’ll shoot you right now!’ And at that very moment my grandmother entered and started screaming, ‘My daughter Bozsi what’s happening to you here?’ In the meantime the Arrow Cross man shouted to the policeman to come and he said, ‘This one here is having convulsions’. To this the Arrow Cross man said, ‘Leave her to hell, let’s go!’ And he left with the group. At that very moment my mother got up, she grabbed my brother and me and said that we wouldn’t stay here. She ran away with us.

A few days later my mother found a Swedish protected hospital and children’s home at 26 Erzsebet Boulevard and she took us there. It was a two-bedroom apartment, where about sixty children slept and we got along quite well. She said that she was a nurse and her husband was a doctor, and that she worked there on the ground floor with the sick old Jews. She placed us children there.

I was fourteen years old then, and I had a report book from the nuns. I said that I would find out about dad –
see whether he had gone home. The caretaker was a very decent man and he said that dad had been there and left a message that he was at 30 Akacfa Street, in the ghetto. I did all this without a yellow star. I went in, as at the time, the entrance to the ghetto was still open. I went up and dad was lying on a straw mattress with fifteen others. My father said, ‘Come on in, let’s stay together. I’m a doctor and I’ll get a servant’s room for the four of us’. And then we were there in the ghetto in a small servant’s room that faced the courtyard, and we didn’t even go down to the cellar – right up until the Soviet troops came in.

After graduation, I got married right away. At the banquet I was already married because Tamas, or Tomi, Weisz was to be sent to the Soviet Union to study right away. I said that we should get married because I had been dating him for years. Around 1943, I frequently went out to Marguerite Island with girlfriends, and boys always went there with us. He was one of them. And then he disappeared in the war. He was hiding with his mum in parks, everywhere. He was taken to a brickyard, and he escaped. And then he and his mum somehow always came and went to and from parks. They went home at night, then into a yellow-star house in Ujlipotvaros [a bourgeois part of Budapest, where a lot of middle-class Jewish families used to live].

Post-war

After the war Tomi graduated from the College of Theatre and Film Arts. His father, Lajos Weisz, was a dry goods agent, but he died of a disease in 1943. His mother was a dressmaker and she supported Tamas as long as he needed. After college, Tomi found a position at the Hungarian Film Newsreel Co.

When we got married we didn’t know where to live. We went to my mother-in-law’s for two days, but she was married by then, and her husband said that this wasn’t the reason he had gotten married: to share the place with us. Then my aunt Rene, who had also got married again, put us up in the rear quarter of her villa. My other aunt put us up for a few months. Slowly a year passed and Tamas got a single-bedroom union apartment at the Newsreel for his good work. We lived there for a while, until we came here in the spring of 1956. Tomi was still working at the Newsreel, and later it became the Newsreel Documentary Film Studio. There were always bonuses at the Newsreel. So we bought a car in 1960.

When a placard appeared in the streets in 1945 that said, ‘Hungarian Youth! Come on, do sports, have fun, dance!’, I said that this time I was like everyone else. And I joined MADISZ [Hungarian Democratic Youth Alliance] 5 so that I could dance and do sports. And they told me to stay: there would be work, there would be dances, and I’d see that everybody was the same from now on. And I liked it very much and I took the ideology for granted as well. I couldn’t believe what some of my other girlfriends told me about the Soviet Union. I was a believer with all my heart. I could argue even in tramways if somebody scorned it. Then there were still religion classes at school and our priest disparaged MADISZ a great deal. And then there was an argument between classmates and MADISZ members.

There were many Jews in the fifth district MADISZ organization. I think that the Jews I knew there believed that it was a new world and that the old one had been awful because we and our parents had been taken and had yellow stars put on and been spat on. And there shouldn’t be any more of this and the Communist Party and MADISZ was the best way to avoid it. And the others were proles who felt that they could become somebody, that we could finally study.

My father once talked with a friend who told him, ‘Pal you belong here, you have principles that are Marxist, join!’ And then my father joined and my mother joined, too. And when the resettlements [resettlement in Hungary] 6 came, a very decent, not-at-all-capitalist retailer-friend of ours, who had even brought food to us in the ghetto, was resettled, despite the fact that he had diabetes, and my father wrote to Rakosi [Rakosi regime] 7 about it. He was extraordinarily naive. In 1944 he had thought that if we did what the Germans wanted, there wouldn’t be any problems. And here he thought that if he wrote to Rakosi, they would bring back poor Gyula Marczis. Instead, they convened a party meeting in the Rokus hospital and he was expelled from the Party in 1952.

In 1956 [Revolution of 1956] 8 I would have liked to have left but my father said that in spite of the terrible things that had happened to him, because of his expulsion from the Party, we didn’t have to go away from here; the situation would become calmer now. And Tamas didn’t want to go because he said that he had a machine on loan to him from the Ministry of Light Industry and they would say that he was trying to steal it. Also, Gyuri, my son, was just three years old.

When I got married, I went to work at the Motion Picture Co. in the youth-organizing department where the pioneers were organized for Soviet films – in the largest possible numbers, and for Sunday mornings if possible, so that they couldn’t go to church.

In 1952 when my father was expelled from the Party I was already working at the Culture Department of the Pioneer Center as film organizer and I went in to the cadre official to say that my father had been expelled. He said he was sure that he could clear his case, but they relocated me to a district administrative position. In the meantime in the youth party school one of my girlfriends said to me, ‘Mari, we should study something, let’s go to the teacher training college’. What I had been interested in all my life was sports, physical education, but there was Hungarian language and literature here in the evening course and I graduated from that. At the time I was already known in the pioneer center in Obuda because I was an district chief secretary and I was still going to college and there was a position there. I taught in an elementary school, paid by the hour. I taught in several schools, then I got a real contract at Vorosvari Street. I worked there for many, many years.

In 1952 I had a premature delivery, Andras: he died quite soon after. Then came Gyuri in 1953, and in 1965 there was Gabor, who later died at the age of 19. He had just started university. He was a Hungarian-English major. It came suddenly, it’s called sarcoma. If it caught a young man, it killed him within months. Gyuri graduated from Eotvos Lorand University, majoring in Hungarian and Aesthetics. When it turned out that kidney disease is treated better elsewhere than here, he left. First he went with a scholarship, then in Berlin he made contacts in the Hungarian House [Hungarian cultural institution in Berlin], and he has worked there since. He’s a program manager there.

The children knew that they were Jews, we didn’t hide that, but we didn’t raise them to be religious because we already didn’t believe, either. When, in 1956 my son asked about little Jesus [traditionally, Christmas presents are said to be brought by little Jesus, rather than Santa Claus], when he was three years old, my husband said to him, ‘Gyuri, there is no little Jesus, but you don’t have to tell that to others because it hurts people’. It happened once, in a shop, that somebody asked, ‘Son, what has little Jesus brought you?’ He said to the man that there was no little Jesus and that, ‘[his] father told me that one doesn’t have to talk about this’. So Gyuri knew, and Gabor knew as well. And our close friends knew. Somehow our circle of friends formed in a way that they were all Jews, with one exception.

I didn’t really read newspapers, despite the fact that, as a party member, I should have, but I wasn’t interested in them. I didn’t know anything about Israel, except that Kato, my mother’s sister, was there and that it was not advised to correspond with her because that was not taken well here, and then I wouldn’t get a passport to go to the West as a tourist. For a long time we didn’t correspond with Margit, nor with Rene, who lived in London, but then, in the 1960s, we could even go there to visit them. And then we did. But I didn’t know anything about Israel. I knew about the establishment of the State of Israel and about the problems, when I read the book entitled ‘Exodus’ in the 1960s. I thought a little bit about how good it must be to live there where everybody is Jewish. I was there for the first time in 1985 and then I saw that perhaps not everything was so good there.

Of course my sense of being Jewish strengthened in me after the change of regime, because anti-Semitism began. And then, if you read things like that, it gets into your mind. That never came to my mind in the party state, because this was not a matter for discussion. Or rather, it seems it was – only it was done very much under cover, those who were Jewish hid the fact. And I didn’t know about the trials against Jews in the Soviet Union [the Doctors’ Plot 9].

Today I don’t go to any kind of temple, because that is my childhood. It’s like when somebody says it was a wonderful world because that was his youth. In the meantime my cousin from Israel started to come here and send presents; then I went to Israel. So now, I belong more. But it’s one thing to belong to the Jews and another that I can’t believe that there is a God who demands me to keep certain traditions. I can’t imagine that children have to wear payes, and girls have to wear long, warm dresses, or that it’s a problem if you eat noodles with cottage cheese. Would a God care about these things? I regard these things as absolutely childish and naive.

Glossary

1 Arrow Cross Party

The most extreme of the Hungarian fascist movements in the mid-1930s. The party consisted of several groups, though the name is now commonly associated with the faction organized by Ferenc Szalasi and Kalman Hubay in 1938. Following the Nazi pattern, the party promised not only the establishment of a fascist-type system including social reforms, but also the ‘solution of the Jewish question’. The party's uniform consisted of a green shirt and a badge with a set of crossed arrows, a Hungarian version of the swastika, on it. On 15th October 1944, when governor Horthy announced Hungary's withdrawal from the war, the Arrow Cross seized power with military help from the Germans. The Arrow Cross government ordered general mobilization and enforced a regime of terror which, though directed chiefly against the Jews, also inflicted heavy suffering upon the Hungarians. It was responsible for the deportation and death of tens of thousands of Jews. After the Soviet army liberated the whole of Hungary by early April 1945, Szalasi and his Arrow Cross ministers were brought to trial and executed.

2 Yellow star in Hungary

Yellow star in Romania: On 8th July 1941, Hitler decided that all Jews from the age of 6 from the Eastern territories had to wear the Star of David, made of yellow cloth and sewed onto the left side of their clothes. In Hungary it was introduced by the Sztojay government along with a number of other anti-Jewish decrees on 5th April 1944, two weeks after the German army occupied Hungary.

3 Anti-Jewish laws in Hungary

Following similar legislation in Nazi Germany, Hungary enacted three Jewish laws in 1938, 1939 and 1941. The first law restricted the number of Jews in industrial and commercial enterprises, banks and in certain occupations, such as legal, medical and engineering professions, and journalism to 20% of the total number. This law defined Jews on the basis of their religion, so those who converted before the short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic in 1919, as well as those who fought in World War I, and their widows and orphans were exempted from the law. The second Jewish law introduced further restrictions, limiting the number of Jews in the above fields to 6%, prohibiting the employment of Jews completely in certain professions such as high school and university teaching, civil and municipal services, etc. It also forbade Jews to buy or sell land and so forth. This law already defined Jews on more racial grounds in that it regarded baptized children that had at least one non-converted Jewish parent as Jewish. The third Jewish law prohibited intermarriage between Jews and non-Jews, and defined anyone who had at least one Jewish grandparent as Jewish.

4 Yellow star houses

The system of exclusively Jewish houses, which acted as a form of hostage taking, was introduced by Hungarian authorities in Budapest in June 1944. The authorities believed that if they concentrated all the Jews of Budapest in the ghetto, the Allies would not attack it, but if they placed such houses all over Budapest, especially near important public buildings it was a kind of guarantee. Jews were only allowed to leave such houses for two hours a day to buy supplies and such.

5 MADISZ [Hungarian Democratic Youth Alliance]

Mass organization assembling young people between the ages of 15 and 24 who were not members of the Communist Party. It was set up in 1944, on the initiative of the Hungarian Communist Party and it was under direct communist control from 1945. It merged with the SZIT, the Trade Union Movement of Young Workers and Apprentices in 1948.

6 Resettlement in Hungary

After 1945, based on a decision by the Great Powers, some 200,000 Hungarians of German ethnicity were resettled outside the borders of Hungary and likewise, about 70,000 Hungarians from the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia were expulsed from their home country and resettled in Hungary. After the communist takeover in 1948, the Hungarian Ministry of Internal Affairs ordered the resettlement from Budapest of what they called ‘former exploiters’ to the countryside. This decree was applied to all people that the communist power regarded as its enemy: to the officials of the prewar state apparatus, soldiers, policemen, kulaks, members of the aristocracy, etc. At least 12,000 people were forced to leave their domicile and were taken to small, god-forsaken villages under very hard living conditions. Resettlement was stopped in 1953.

7 Rakosi regime

Matyas Rakosi was a Stalinist Hungarian leader between 1948-1956. He introduced an absolute communist terror, established a Stalinist type cult for himself and was responsible for the show trials of the early 1950s. After the Revolution of 1956, he went to the Soviet Union and died there.

8 Revolution of 1956

Starting on 23rd October 1956, this uprising was against Soviet rule and the communists in Hungary. It was started by student and worker demonstrations in Budapest during which Stalin’s gigantic statue was destroyed. Moderate communist leader Imre Nagy was appointed as prime minister and he promised reform and democratization. The Soviet Union withdrew its troops which had been stationed in Hungary since the end of World War II, but they returned after Nagy’s announcement that Hungary would pull out of the Warsaw Pact to pursue a policy of neutrality. The Soviet army put an end to the rising on 4th November and mass repression and arrests started. About 200,000 Hungarians fled from the country. Nagy and a number of his supporters were executed. Until 1989, the fall of the communist regime, the Revolution of 1956 was officially considered a counter-revolution.

9 Doctors’ Plot

The Doctors’ Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin’s reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

Siima Shkop

Siima Shkop
Tallinn
Estonia
Interviewer: Ella Levitskaya
Date of the Interview: March 2006

I interviewed Sima Shkop at home. She is living in the house, constructed by the Artists’ Council in Estonia, next to the citadel wall around the Old City. Siima lives by herself after her husband died. Though, she is not quite alone. A big well-groomed cat is living with her. Numerous pictures on the wall are painted by Siima and her friends. Siima is a petite lady. It is hard for her to walk, so users walkers for that. Siima has a heavy Russian accent. She switches to Estonian when her Russian fails her. Nata Ring, the secretary of the Tallinn Jewish Community 1 came with me for the first meeting as she interpreted for us. Nata is from Tartu like Siima. In spite of living in Tallinn for about 70 years, Siima loves Tartu, her native town. She told me a lot about the Tartu of her childhood. Siima has a tough character and I felt it right away. She did not like the fact that I do not know Yiddish and reminded me of that often. I came with another person for the second time. Siima must have gotten used to me and was more affable. During my second visit she offered me to take a look at her illustrations of children’s books. I was rapt by what I saw and it instantly changed my impression on Siima. Only a person, having the perception of a child, could create such sunny, fairytale pictures. The characters of the fairytale drawn by her looked as if they were real, alive. When it was cold outside and I felt blue, I remembered her pictures and smiled.

I did not know anybody from my father’s family. Father, Jacob Shkop, came to Estonia from Poland, when he was adult. His family stayed there. All I know is that my paternal grandfather Moishe was a high-class tailor. In general, Father and his relatives were excellent dressmakers. They were very popular. I never met them. Besides, Father never told me much about his family. I even do not know the names of his relatives. Recently I found some old notes, where I found out that Father was born in 1883. I do not remember the place of his birth.

Mother’s family lived in the Estonian town of Tartu. My maternal grandfather, Shloime-Meer Rozenko, came to Estonia from Lithuania, when he was a callow youth. Grandfather served in the tsarist army 2. At that time the term of service was 25 years, so even if Grandfather was drafted into the army at the age of 17-18, he must have been over 40 when he was demobilized.

Grandpa was very handsome when he was young – a blond with bright blue eyes. He did not look like a Jew at all. I remember one interesting case, when I was about 13, one man came to Grandfather from Germany. I even do not know who he was to him, but he collected information about Grandpa. In Lithuania, which was Grandpa’s motherland, some of the people who had known him since childhood said that Grandpa was a foundling, fostered and raised by a Jewish family. I do not know whether that’s true.

Anyway, Grandpa identified himself as a Jew. He lived like a true Jew: he was religious, observed traditions, went to synagogue twice a week. During the holiday period, he went to the synagogue almost every day. Kashrut was observed in my family since childhood.

I did not know my grandmother Siima Rosenko, nee Kaplun. She died long before I was born. She had diabetes. She must have been born in Tartu as there was a tombstone in Tartu cemetery with an inscription in Hebrew. I never came across the surname Kaplun among Estonian Jews. There are a lot of people with the surname Kaplan though. Grandmother also has a grave in the old cemetery of Tartu. It is written Siima Rosenko in Russian [Cyrillic] on her tombstone.

Grandpa Shloime-Meer was also a tailor, specialized in dress coats, which required strong skills. Tail coats were in demand in Tartu because it was a university town and that type of dress was needed for all kinds of events and costume parties, arranged by the student societies. There were rich students, who ordered tail coats and poorer students could not afford that, but still needed them from time to time, so Grandpa made tail coats for rental. I remember there were two large wardrobes with tail coats of different sizes.

Since Tartu was a students’ town there were a lot of Estonian and Jewish students’ corporations, thus there were a lot of events and people hired tail coats from Grandfather. Besides, he was an honorable guest at all celebrations. Very often Grandpa came home drunk. He was a very interesting man. He was not of a tall height, had a nice voice and great sense of humor. All people loved him.

His tail coats were popular not only with students. When Carlis Urmanis 3 became the president of Latvia, he ordered tail coats from grandfather. Grandfather was invited to go to Riga several times to make the tail coats for him. I do not know when Ulmanis met Grandpa – perhaps he studied in Tartu. Grandfather made pretty good money, which was enough to provide for the family and pay tuition for education. Grandmother was a housewife.

Grandmother gave birth to five children, four daughters and a son. The eldest was Sarah, born in 1880, the second Dina, born in 1882. My mother Rosa, the third daughter, was born in 1884. Another daughter Luba – Jewish name Liebe – was born two years after Mother, and then, finally, the long-awaited son, German, came into the world. His Jewish name was Solomon.

All children were raised Jewish. Only Yiddish was spoken at home. Of course, the grandparents and their children also knew Estonian and German which was common in Estonia. Sabbath and all Jewish holidays were marked at home; kashrut was observed as it was holy.

The five children got good education. All studied at a lyceum. I am not sure if it was a Jewish lyceum. Recently there was an exhibition in Tartu on the subject of education in Estonia. My son went to see it. There was my mother’s certificate stating her transfer to the next grade. My son said she had straight excellent marks there. In general, my mom and her siblings were very gifted.

I do not know where my parents met. All I know is that they had a true Jewish wedding in Tartu with the rabbi and chuppah. Soon after the wedding, Father found a job in Sweden and left there with Mom. Father did not work there for a long time and decided to immigrate to America. He got in touch with his pals, who were living there, and they talked him out of it. At that time there was an unemployment crisis in America and his pals wrote that it would be hard for him to find a job there. Mother was pregnant and wanted to give birth in Tartu, so they decided to come back.

In 1909 my elder sister Rachel was born. She was called Rika in the family. When she was one year old, Father found a job in Warsaw, Poland. He was fluent in Polish and welcomed the chance to work there. They did not stay there for long. The house, where Father’s workshop was, burned down, and my parents came back to Tartu again. There were four people in the family now. In 1911 my sister Masha was born in Warsaw. She was named after our paternal grandfather, Moishe Shkop. They rented an apartment in Tartu and Father had his workshop there.

During World War I, Father was drafted into the army, and he was in the lines for four years. He was contused, when he was in Manchuria. Father had serious heart trouble when he came back to Tartu after war. He had a great workshop in Tartu and was a famous tailor there.

Mother was a housewife at that time and took care of children. When she got pregnant again, Father was sure that he would have a son. He was agog to see a son, but I was born in 1920. I was named after my maternal grandmother Sima. I do not know whether Father was disappointed that I was born, instead of a long-awaited son, but still he loved me very much and I loved him too. In spite of being busy, he paid attention to his children.

Yiddish was spoken at home, so I have known my mother tongue since childhood. Estonian was my other mother tongue, as my sisters and I played with Estonian children, who were living in our yard. It was natural for us to speak Estonian. Father was also fluent in Polish and Russian. His favorite writer was the Czech comedian writer Yaroslav Gashek. At home we had his book about a brave student Sweik. The book was in Yiddish and Father liked reading it to us. Father had a nice tenor voice. There was a Jewish drama theater in Tartu. There were no professional actors there, only talented amateur actors. The operetta ‘Silva’ was staged in the theater. I remember Mom and Dad often read in duet.

Father had another hobby – chess. There were some nooks in the theater where people could play chess. I remember Father took me to the café, where he bought me ice-cream and I was watching how he played chess. Father was good at chess and I also started understanding the game. In fact, Father liked taking me anywhere he could. When the first movie theaters opened up, he took me there.

Father loved reading and plied me with that since childhood. We had a very good library at home and Father also took me to the Jewish library in Tartu. We enjoyed getting together in the evening and read. Then we discussed the books and shared our opinion.

My parents were very sociable. Father had many friends. His best pals were those who were in the lines with him. My parents often went for a visit and we also received guests in our house. We kept the door open for people.

We sacredly followed Jewish traditions. Every Friday morning Mother cooked food for Sabbath. In the evening the whole family got together, Mother lit Sabbath candles, and we started dinner after having prayed. On Saturday morning Father always went to the synagogue. We marked Jewish holidays at home. We had separate Pascal dishes. Before Pesach there was a big cleaning in the house, chametz was taken out. Only after that Pascal dishes could be brought in. Of course, we obligatorily had matzah for the holiday. Father bought Pascal wine in the synagogue. We had two seders at Pesach: on the first and on the second evening of the holiday.

We marked other Jewish holidays as well. On Yom Kippur my parents and elder sister fasted. Purim was a double holiday for us as it was also Mother’s birthday. Mother baked hamantashen – triangular pies with poppy seeds and raisons. On Jewish holidays the whole family went to the synagogue. Father was on the first floor with other men. Mother, my elder sister and I were on the top floor. It was always very ceremonious. We wore our best outfits on those occasions. My parents also made contributions to charity, it was a matter of honor for every Jew. On holidays we visited our relatives and they came to see us.

That calm secular life was over in 1929. Father came back from the war with heart trouble, which finally killed him. Father was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Tartu according to the Jewish rite. Mother did not work while Father was alive, as he could provide for his family.

We had hard times when Father died. Mother was a widow with three children and she had to make money. She learned machine knitting. She was very gifted and had a fine taste. She started taking orders in the store. They gave her wool and she knitted jackets, which were sold in the stores. When she learned how to work very quickly she took orders in three stores.

Mother’s elder sister Sarah helped us a lot. She was married, but had no children. She treated us like her own kids. Sarah was a seamstress and her first husband was a tailor. First, they had a sewing workshop. Sarah was a great milliner. She had excellent taste. She was taught sewing by the best tailors in Saint Petersburg. Sarah was an amazingly kind woman. I have never seen a kinder person in my life. She helped everybody, not only us, and people loved her.

Sarah was the only of my mother’s sisters who stayed in Estonia. Her sister Dina, a blue-eyed blond, married an Estonian German man, who was from Tartu. His name was Milts. He taught geography at lyceum. Shortly after the wedding, Dina and her husband left for Germany and settled in Bremen. Her three daughters – Gertrude, Krista and Inge – are elder than me.

The third sister Luba married a Jew from Tartu, a tailor called Meer Marshak. His brother, also a tailor, rented the second floor in the house, where we rented the first floor. In general, the family was big and all were tailors. All of them, including Luba and Meer, left for England, Liverpool, in 1921. When I was a child, I knew Luba only from pictures. I met her when she came to the wedding of my sister Masha. Luba did not have children. When Father died she assisted us with money a lot. Gertrude, Dina’s elder daughter, said that she helped them as well when life was hard in Germany after the war.

Both of my sisters went to lyceum: Rika to the Russian one and Masha to the German one. Jews often had their children study in the German lyceum, for them to learn the language to enable them to continue their education. When Father was alive, the family could afford tuition. Having finished school, my elder sisters Rika and Rachel entered Tartu University, the economy department. Then Father died, so Rika had to find a job to pay for tuition.

She worked for the Jewish bank in Tartu to assist Mom with money and to get more experience. At that time Rika studied hard at the university library. She met her husband there. Dovid Soliternik lived in Israel. He was one of the first to settle there. His family came either from Romania or Bulgaria. He was a young disabled man. He had an artificial leg, he worked with dynamite and his leg was blown off as a result of a blast. He was not fit for the army, so he decided to enter Jerusalem University, finished it and became a tutor.

A Latvian Jewish school invited him to hold a lecture course for students in Daugavpilts. At that time he was a professor, an expert in oriental languages. Dovid found out that Tartu library had ancient Arabic manuscripts and he came here from Latvia to read them. So he met Luba there. It was love at first sight – a great love.

They got married in two months. The wedding was in Latvia, under a chuppah. Shortly after the wedding Dovid came back to Israel with Rika. I do not remember the name of that small town, where they settled. They built a house. Dovid worked as a teacher. In 1936 their first child was born. They named him Jacob after my father.

My second sister Masha got married right after finishing lyceum. Her future husband, Aisek Reisman, was her classmate for eight years. They got married right after having finished lyceum. When Mother wrote a letter to Aunt Luba that Masha was going to get married, Luba came from England. She organized a great wedding for Masha and Aisek. It was a truly Jewish wedding with a chuppah. I do not know why they had a wedding in Valga. I can’t recall.

After the wedding, Aisik entered Tartu University. He studied and worked. Masha did not study as there was no money for tuition. She tried to learn some profession, but did not succeed. She was very smart, but awkward. She found a job as a sales assistant in a large store. They lived separately from us, but Masha always found time for me and called on us often. My sisters were both friends and nannies for me. They took good care of me as they were much older.

When my sisters were married off and left the house, Mother could not afford the apartment we were renting, and we moved to Grandpa. When Sarah got married, he stayed alone. Mother was the homemaker. Our living was modest, but Mother always found money to celebrate Sabbath and mark all holidays Jewish traditionally. She observed kashrut. We had kosher dishes. I remember she cooked vegetable soup and gefilte fish – Grandfather’s favorite dish.

Mother took me to the Jewish kindergarten. The teacher was the wife of the director of the Jewish school in Tartu. She taught Ivrit, and I still remember it. All classes were taught in Ivrit and Mother wanted me to learn the language and to be among children. I went to study when Father was still alive. He was getting more and more unwell, and there was a lack of money. That is why I entered Jewish elementary school.

The teachers were good. By the way, some of them later taught at the Tallinn Jewish lyceum. Our teacher at the first grade was Vilenskaya, a very beautiful lady. She taught me how to read and write. She and her friends staged plays in German at the school theater in Tartu. Then she taught German at Tallinn school.

We had wonderful teachers. One of them, Levitin, seemed an old man to me. He taught us Ivrit and the Tannakh in Hebrew. Of course, he did not tell us all the things, he picked only the subjects that we would understand, and covered the most important things. He also commented – sharing what one rabbi said on a certain subject and what opposite opinion was expressed by another rabbi, and we tried to find out which opinion was correct. Then I understood he did not only teach the Tannakh, he wanted us to learn how to think, analyze and have our own opinion, even it differs from the common point of view.

He also told us interesting stories, which I still remember. My teachers also arranged extra-curriculum activities. There was a school theater, we staged plays, gave performances dedicated to the main Jewish holidays. There were a lot of spectators – kin, friends – and all praised them. A school choir also gave a performance as well as the students of the dancing and gymnastics studio. The concert program was always very comprehensive and it was interesting for both – spectators and participants. One of our teachers, Levin, came here from Poland. He knew a lot of nice Jewish songs and taught us those. I have very bright recollections from school times. I kept in touch with many of my classmates after I left school. I studied there only for three years.

When I finished the third grade, there were not enough students to form another class. Thus we had to go to different schools. There were eight girls in my class, and the four of them, including me, went to an Estonian school. It was an elite school and the tuition was high. The teachers were great. I think Aunt Sarah covered the tuition there to help Mother and me. The four of us understood that there was a need to speak fluent Estonian and have no accent. We were the first Jewish girls who were enrolled in that school.

Of course, we were fluent in Estonian as we were constantly communicating with Estonian children, but our grammar was poor. In summer, the four of us crammed Estonian grammar. After hard studies, we learned how to write literately. Then at school it turned out that our Estonian was better than that of other students – Estonian native speakers. The Estonian language teacher respected us for having good knowledge of Estonian grammar. We also had a good German teacher.

I cannot say that we, Jews, were treated in a wrong way, but there were all kinds of incidents. Once, we came in the class and one girl cried out, ‘Jew!’ and pointed at me in front of the class. I was a small girl, but I could stand up for myself. I took a bottle of glue and poured it on her head. Then I beat her, though she was much bigger than I. The whole class was rapt! After that people had a very good attitude towards the Jews in class.

I and other Jewish girls had Lithuanian friends. Of course, there were times when the guys would push us in the street and say something unpleasant, but without spite. In general, the attitude was good. I did not feel hurt. We prayed on Monday before classes. We, Jewish girls, did not join the prayer, and waited by the door to the classroom. There was a prayer at the end of the school day. Once I also said a prayer in Lithuanian, but it was like a joke for me.

I started drawing in the Lithuanian school. We had a wonderful drawing teacher. Her lessons were always very interesting. She gave us the topic and we were supposed to draw something on that subject. At the end of the class she collected our drawings. She showed them to the whole class and everybody was to express their opinion on them. She did not teach us basic skills, but, the most important thing: she taught us how to look at things. Now, I think it is the most important thing for an artist is to know how to look.

My friends and I did very well at school. I understood that there could be no other way as tuition cost a lot of money. I tried being good even at math, despite loathing that subject. I studied there for two years. Sarah’s first husband died. She married a Jew from Tallinn and moved there. Sarah tried talking Mother into moving to Tallinn. Then she got sick and had to undergo operation. Aunt asked Mother to let at least me come to Tallinn. Mother could not decide on moving there as she thought it would be hard to get a job in Tallinn. Grandpa’s tailor’s work shop was still income-bearing. We decided that I should go to Tallinn myself and live with Aunt.

I entered the Tallinn Jewish lyceum 4. It has an interesting history. Tallinn Jews put money together to have the school built. In 1924 the lyceum was opened, and it is still there. Owing to the efforts of our Jewish community, there is a Jewish lyceum there now. There was an Estonian school during Soviet times.

At first, it was hard for me to study at the lyceum as the teaching was in Ivrit, but not the old Ivrit that I was taught at school, but the modern Ivrit, spoken in Israel. I understood almost everything, but could not speak myself. It was not hard during the classes. My classmates spoke Ivrit during the breaks. Then I started taking private lessons in Ivrit. My teacher was Michelson. I worked very hard and studied it for less than a year.

I liked lyceum a lot, both my peers and teachers. We had a very good class; unfortunately, most of my classmates are dead now. There were quite a few students from the school in Tartu in the Tallinn lyceum. The school in Tartu was a six-year one, so many students decided to continue their education in Tallinn.

Samuel Gourin was the principal: a tall, blond man with huge eyes. He was loved and respected. His daughter was also studying at the lyceum. She was a bit younger than me. Zhenya became an orphan as her mother died when she was two or three years old. Gourin taught general history. We did not have text books in modern Ivrit, so we took notes after him.

There was also a teacher who taught us Jewish history. We also were taught Ivrit literature and grammar. Our mathematics teacher was from Tartu. When my sisters were studying, he taught mathematics in both lyceums. Then he was transferred to Tallinn lyceum. He was a very good teacher.

I hated math most of all when I went to Estonian school, especially algebra I disliked. I did much better in math when I was studying at the lyceum, I even started liking it when I had a trigonometry course. It was interesting for me and I got good marks. Vilerinskaya, my first teacher at Tartu school, also taught here. She was the German teacher.

We had so many new subjects that now I am even surprised how we could digest it all. There were also subjects taught in Estonian: chemistry, physics, geography and of course Estonian literature and grammar. There was also a course of Russian language, which I did not know at all. I even did not know the alphabet, but my classmates read the books written by Pushkin 5, Lermontov 6 etc. in the original.

The Russian teacher was very handsome. He understood that I did not know Russian and he permitted me to read those books in Estonian so that I could understand what was going on. Of course, I read them with pleasure and found them very interesting. I needed to learn the basics of the language and one of my classmates helped me with that. There was one class where the subjects were taught in Russian, but the group was very small. There were also gymnastics classes. We did not have my favorite drawing classes.

The chazzan of Tallinn synagogue, Gourevich, taught music and Jewish traditions to us. He came to the classes with a small accordion and played it. We sang Jewish and Hebrew songs. Gourevich was very interesting and funny. His daughter, Anna, subsequently a famous Estonian pianist, Anna Klias, also studied at our lyceum. She was a good student. When I graduated from lyceum, she and some other Tallinn alumni were at the traditional reception arranged by our principal. The most outstanding student was always invited and there were always Jews among them.

Children from poor and rich families studied together and it did not affect the relationship. We did not choose friends by their parents’ income. We had our own company consisting of boys and girls. We went to dancing classes. In general it was our common interest. We wanted to learn how to dance beautifully.

All lyceum students were members of Jewish organizations. I was a member of the children’s Jewish organizations. In Tartu I was a member of Hashomer Hatzair 7. This organization was represented in Tallinn as well. A lot of my classmates were members of Hashomer. We took part in Estonian scout contests. In summer we went to Hashomer Hatzair scout camps. When we moved to Tallinn I entered the Jewish youth organization Maccabi 8. There were good gyms in that organization. I loved gymnastics. I started attending rhythmic gymnastics there. I had rhythmic gymnastics classes in Tartu, but they did not have such good facilities as in Tallinn. Our trainings took place in the university gym.

We, schoolchildren, were interested in politics. When the fascists came to power in Germany, we started boycotting German films; a lot of them were screened in movie theaters. We even refused speaking German, though most of us were fluent in this language.

I finished lyceum in 1938 at the age of 18. I wanted to go on with my education, and was dreaming of going to the arts institute. The tuition was very expensive, and I could not afford it. Aunt suggested taking me as an apprentice in her workshop, but I did not like sewing and had no skills for that. I decided that I would take any profession, but that. I became an apprentice of a famous hairdresser in Tallinn. Even the president had his hair cut there and the wives of all the diplomats were customers there.

At that time, when the fascists came to power in Germany, fascism was trickling down here as well. They even did not want to hire me for being a Jew, but still took me as an apprentice for two months. Then one of their regular customers – a wealthy Jew – stood up for me. She said if I was fired only because of my nationality then no Tallinn Jews would ever come to the salon. She was also supported by a rich German lady, who was also a regular customer. She said the nationality did not matter, the work did.

Unfortunately, during my apprenticeship I was more involved in cleaning than in training. When I had spare time I was standing by the master and watching his work – beautiful hairdos. Once a week I attended a special school where I was taught to put wigs on and do make-up. It was very interesting for me. When I finished school, I worked at the hairdressers’. Often I did not have to do my job, but be at beck and call for my customers, who were of different age – adult ladies and young girls like me. While they waiting in line, they could send me to fetch cakes from confectionary or run other errands for them.

When a customer was my age I sadly thought to myself – that she could do what she wanted – study and have no problems in life. I wanted to study, but could not afford it. I wanted to banish those thoughts, as there was nothing I could do. If I was too focused on that, it would make my life unbearable. I tried to have a fully-fledged life the best way I could. In the evenings I went to Maccabi for training. I dated a guy, my classmate from lyceum. My beloved and I went to the theater, cinema, dancing.

I also attended English language courses. Now I cannot picture how I could cope with all that. In a year I met a young man, an artist. He looked at my drawings from school and said that I should become an artist. I dropped my English language courses and went to the art studio instead. It was headed by Estonian sculptor, Voldemar Mellik. I attended evening art school courses. We painted nude models. In Mellik’s opinion I did pretty well. He said that I had to study at the institute, which I could not afford.

In 1939 my elder sister Rika, her husband and son came to Tallinn from Israel. Dovid intended to work in the library and Rika was happy to take advantage of the chance to rent an apartment not far from Aunt Sarah’s house. Then Mother and Grandpa moved to Tallinn. Mother moved in with Rika and Grandfather lived in Aunt Sarah’s apartment. There was not enough room for everybody, besides there was Aunt’s sewing workshop in the apartment. It was OK with me as I was out of the house most of the time.

I spent a lot of time in Maccabi. We had a wonderful rhythmic gymnastics trainer and we succeeded in our performance. We did not only tour Estonian cities we were also in Latvia and Lithuania. In 1939 we were invited to Finland. There was a large stadium in Helsinki constructed on the occasion of Olympic games, where in 1939 on the eve of the Soviet-Finnish War 9, an international gymnastics event was held with the participation of 300 Estonian girls and boys. Our nine ladies from Maccabi, including me, also took part in the event. The audience was pleased.

In 1939 Germany attacked Poland 10. The war was over shortly after Soviet troops entered Poland. Then the Soviet Union attacked Finland. We followed the military actions and were worried for Finland. We were very happy when the war was over as Estonia always had very good relationships with Finland. Then the Soviet government signed a non-aggression agreement with Germany [the so-called Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact] 11 and put pressure on the Estonian government to have military bases constructed on its territory 12.

Of course, at that time we did not know what it was for and felt calm. Many of those who were frightened of the intrusion of German troops in Poland even welcomed the idea of Soviet military bases in Estonia thinking it to be a pledge for peace. We knew that Jews were killed in Germany. By the middle of the 1930s there were quite a few fugitives from Germany. They said what was going on there. At any rate, our family feared fascists much more than the Soviet Union.

In 1940 Estonia became Soviet. In general, we had nothing against it as we knew hardly anything about Soviet life. All we knew were pretty attractive slogans. A lot changed when the Soviet regime was established in Lithuania. There were even changes for the better – the education was free, both secondary and higher. It meant that my dream to study at the Art Institute would come true. In general, there were a lot of new interesting things. My friends and I were fond of that. We discussed news.

I successfully passed entrance exams to Tallinn Art Institute, the art department. I did not have to pay tuition. Besides, I got scholarship. I could drop work and start studying. It was a happy year for me, 1940. I enjoyed drawing and the classes were not a burden, but a pleasure for me. I managed to cover a two-year program within a year. I studied only for half a year at the first course, attending the classes for the 1st and the 2nd course and passed exams for both courses.

As for the painting classes, I was in the group with the students of the 3rd course. Khapson, the best Estonian artist, taught us painting. He became my tutor. He was my teacher for the whole time. Khapson is still alive. He is 90 and he is still working! His workshop is in the house, where I am living. A museum with his paintings is also here. Our rector, Starkov, was a wonderful Estonian sculptor. He made sculptures from granite. After the war his workshop was in Tartu. Starkov was a very intelligent person, a good rector, treating the students very nicely. I was lucky to have such teachers.

Having finished the 1941 academic year, as per results of the exams, I was transferred to the third course. We had a Komsomol organization 13 at the institute and I joined it. I was a very young girl and was interested in many things. I also had some odd jobs – drawing slogans, pictures for wall papers. At times I had to work from dawn till night. I was friends with the students and did not have any problems with anybody. The teachers also treated me very well.

Of course, I was grateful to the Soviet regime, which let me study and do what I liked. At first, the Soviet regime did not oppress Estonian citizens in any way. Kolkhozes 14 appeared later, and peasants were not oppressed right away. Enterprises were nationalized, and taken away from rich people. There were no wealthy people among my acquaintances and family, so we were not affected by that.

We did not have our own apartment, but rented one. During the Soviet time, the houses were nationalized, but people were not evicted from their homes. At that time we had to share our apartment with another family. It was called communal apartment 15. Before we did not have anything of the kind – people living with strangers in the same apartment. But we abided by that and with many other things.

When on 14th June 1941, one week before the war, people were deported from Estonia 16, it was dreadful! I remember it vividly. Nobody was deported from our family, but we feared it! People shared with each other the news about deportation on that scary day and were afraid for themselves. Everybody understood that it was just a beginning. Most likely there would have been more deportations if on 22nd June 1941 Germany had not attacked the Soviet Union 17.

At that time I destroyed all photos which were connected with Betar 18, Hashomer Hatzair. At that time I understood that those pictures would be the evidence against me. I kept only some snapshots of performances of our Maccabi gymnastics group. I regret it so much; I should have hidden those snapshots.

Grandpa died two weeks before the war. He was buried in the Tallinn Jewish cemetery according to the Jewish rite. At that time we were mourning over him. Only later we understood how happy he was to die at home, among people who loved him, having been buried decently, not in a common grave in evacuation.

Rika and her husband left Estonia in late 1940. They went back to Israel. When we found out that the war was unleashed, we decided to leave Estonian immediately. In the late 1930s there were a lot of fugitives from Germany in Estonia, who told us that the fascists killed Jews. We understood, that we would be killed if we stayed. Without any doubts we packed our things within one night.

My brother-in-law Aisek, Masha’s husband and his brother headed for Leningrad. They escorted the Tallinn hospital, which was evacuated there. Aisik took our things and left. We agreed on a place where we would be able to find them in Leningrad. They left and in couple of days Mother, Sarah, her husband and her one-year-old son went to the train station. We took the train to Leningrad, but we did not reach there. At Kacha station we were rerouted to another train heading for Ulianovsk, Kuybyshev. They did not want to let Estonian fugitives into Leningrad.

We had no things at all as we had counted on getting them in Leningrad. We only had evacuation certificates and passports on us. The final destination was Kuybyshev, but we got off the train in Ulianovsk. Only several Estonian families got off the train there. At the evacuation point we were asked for our identification and intentions. Then we were sent to a local house in a kolkhoz where fugitives from Polish concentration camps were living.

After a while our family was sent to the kolkhoz Kremlevskiy, 25 kilometers away from Ulianovsk. My sister and I were given assignments for work at school. My sister was offered to teach German and I – to teach drawing. My mother and sister were fluent in Russian and I was not. Owing to my Russian teacher at the lyceum I knew the rudiments. I took children’s books in the library, read fairy tales, wrote out unknown words, asked for their meaning and memorized them.

It did not take me long to learn Russian, but I was not very literate. I am still ashamed of my Russian grammar. But still, I know something. It is a beautiful and interesting language. I like Russian literature particularly.

We lived in that kolkhoz for half a year. Our family was given a small ramshackle house, but we could not live there as it was teeming with bedbugs. We found a vacant room at school and moved in there temporarily. Then we were provided with a new lodging – a nice clean house not far from Volga. We lived from hand to mouth. We were saved by the under harvested crops in the fields – we picked peas, wheat ears and ate them. The locals also helped us, though they did not have enough for themselves.

By that time, my brother-in-law Aisik and his brother came. They took the patients and staff of the hospital and then they were free to go. They did not meet us in Leningrad, but found us via the information bureau for evacuees in Buguruslan. Aisik’s brother stayed with us and then all of us left for Ulianovsk. Aisik started working at the factory and rented a room from a Tartar for the whole family.

Тhere were a lot of Tartars in Ulianovsk. I liked them a lot – they were very kind and sincere. Russians were also very good people. But still there were some rascals, who informed the NKVD 19 against us saying to check our things. They searched our apartment, but of course they did not find any things that were banned.

In October 1941 the Germans came closer to Moscow. The commanders understood that they would not be able to stop the Germans and started making anti-tank fortifications. A lot of women and teenagers were involved in that. Those fortifications were made 50 kilometers from Ulianovsk. We were taken there by train.

We were followed by another train with young guys, who were heading for the front. There were even schoolboys among them. That trained stopped by ours. The ladies, who were heading for construction works, got off the train, hugged those boys and gave them some food they had. All of us cried, understanding that the guys were to face death. They did not even have rifles, and they were to be in the lines fighting against well trained and well-armed soldiers.

We were given spades, hoes for digging anti-tank trenches. It was cold, the land was frozen and it was very hard to dig. First we had to work with a hoe and then use a spade. We did not have a place to stay; we had to sleep on the earth. No food was taken to us. We even did not have bread for a week. We had to pick some roots and herbs in the forest nearby. An elderly lady and her daughter and some 13 to 14 boys evacuated from Leningrad were working closely with me. That elderly lady shared all food she had. I will never forget her.

We exerted our every effort, but there were hardly any results. In a couple of days the lady said that we should leave as our work was futile and dangerous for our life. We had to walk for 50 kilometers. It was a harsh winter. We walked along dug anti-tank trenches and the trip seemed endless to us. There were a great many people involved in digging.… We had been walking for a long time when we finally reached Ulianovsk. I got really cold and was unwell for a while. I almost died, but I had a young organism and survived without any medicine.

When I got better, I went to work at the military plant. There we were given food cards 19, which allowed us to get twice as much bread than for civil work. It was very important as there were three of us and I was the only one who was working. Mother and Aunt Sarah got dependent’s cards – 200 grams of heavy semi-raw bread per person. Of course, it was not enough. We were hungry, but the cold was even worse.

The parents and brother of Aisik lived in evacuation in Middle Asia. They often wrote to us and we knew that it was warm there. It was the main reason for our decision to move there. Mother, Aunt Sarah, my sister Masha and her son moved there first. Aisik and I were to follow them later. We were supposed to work for a certain time after submitting our notice.

I met Starkov, the rector of Tallinn Art Institute, in Ulianovsk by chance. He said that he had a lot of friends in Moscow, who taught at the art academy. He gave me their addresses. He told me to drop by them and say hello from him if I were in Moscow. He said they would help me continue my education in Moscow. At that time, I was not thinking of Moscow as I was on the point of leaving for Fergana [Uzbekistan, about 3500 km from Moscow].

We had been traveling for two months. We took the train heading for Fergana, but reached Samarkand. We had to spend a day there before we could take a local train to Fergana. I went to take a walk in the city. It was a beautiful and peculiar place. It was the first time when I saw oriental architecture and paintings. I hadn’t even seen that on pictures before. I was carried away and got lost. I asked for directions, but the local people did not understand me as their Russian was also bad.

I reached the mosque and noticed some people who did not look like locals. I heard them speaking Russian. I went up to them and asked where they were from. I learned that they were from the Moscow Academy of Art which was evacuated in Samarkand. I took out the note which I had gotten from Starkov and asked whether there was such and such a person among them. They told me that it was the rector and took me to him.

I said ‘hello’ from Starkov. He asked me about him and myself and suggested that I should stay in Samarkand and study at the academy. It was very alluring for me, but I decided to find my family first and then, if I had a chance, I would decide to move to Samarkand to study. They saw me off to the train station, but the train to Fergana had already left. The next day I went to the train station once again. There were no tickets, but crowds of people intending to leave, but failing for a number of times. I was lucky that a guy working at the train station took pity on me and pushed me in the car when the train was starting to move.

When I came to Fergana, I went to the evacuation point to ask where my relatives were living. It turned out that they had not reached there yet, though they had left much earlier than me. I happened to be in a strange city alone. A bullock-cart cabman took me to the market on the central street which was called Lenin, as it was common in Soviet times.

I started roaming about the city without knowing what to do. It was a miracle – I met my pal – a Jew from Tallinn, who was the only Jew from Tallinn evacuated in Fergana. There are such amazing coincidences! He suggested that I should live with him. I had stayed there for two weeks before my relatives arrived. Aisik also came after me. It turned out that his brother and he caught typhus on the train and were hospitalized in Samarkand. Aisik survived, but his brother did not.

We found a place to live. Mother and Aunt Sarah were very weak and elderly, so it was hard for them to work. I understood that I would be the only bread-winner of the family and started looking for a job. I found a job as a hair dresser. Before our departure, I took all the instruments with me, I even had rollers for making hair curly. I was gladly offered a job.

In spite of hard military times, I had a lot of clients. All kinds of ladies! The doctors from the rear hospital, wives of militaries, evacuees, women of easy virtue… All of them were very different, but willing to look good. Women wanted to remain feminine and I really liked the fact that I could help them. I made hair-dos. I tried to do my best especially when ladies wanted to have their pictures taken to be sent to their husbands to the front. I was very pleased when the lady showed me the letter from her husband saying how beautiful she looked. There were so few joys at that time, so I was happy for making someone feel good!

Apart from that work I also had some odd jobs. Twice a week I gave drawing lessons at the Pioneer House 21, made inscriptions on gravestones, painted posters, slogans. I worked till night. Then I got lucky. The Moscow theater named after Lenin was evacuated to Fergana from Moscow. I found out that there was a vacancy for an artist. I offered my services and was employed. I made posters, decorations. It was not complicated.

In 1943 I got a letter from the Estonian government. I was offered to go take classes at the art institute in a city in Bauhinia, near Oaf. Of course I felt so happy. It was my cherished dream. Mother and Aunt Sarah got food cards for dependents. There were few products and they would have died if I had not worked. I could not leave them by themselves.

Aisik, my sister Masha’s husband, was drafted into the army in 1942, when the Estonian Corps 22 was founded. He went through the war and finally he took part in the liberation of Estonia from the fascists. The Estonian corps liberated Tallinn from German troops and moved farther, to the islands. Masha often got letters from her husband. She got the last letter from him after his death. He was killed in action on Sharma Island. His elder brother Samuel told us about it after the war. He was a military doctor in the Estonian corps. Samuel saw Aisik walk into a mine field and he was blown up. After battles the soldiers of the Estonian corps buried their perished friends.

After the war Samuel took Anzac’s ashes from Saaremaa to the Jewish cemetery in Tallinn and arranged for a traditional Jewish funeral. In the 1970s Shmuel immigrated to the USA. Very few people from Aisik’s family survived the Holocaust. Some of them were killed in action, others murdered by Germans in Estonia.

We came back home in winter 1944. Estonia had already been liberated from the fascists. We had the certificate saying that we were evacuated from Tallinn and the militia in Fergana issued us a permit to go back. It was a long trip and we celebrated New Year’s 1945 in the train. The winter was very cold, and the cars were barely heated. When we came to Moscow, our train was on the sidetrack for ten days. It was 30 degrees below zero, and it was not much warmer in the cars. Then our train was help up in Leningrad for a long time. Finally we reached Tallinn.

Our and Masha’s apartments were occupied. By that time the wife of Shmuel Zaltsman, Masha’s husband’s brother, came back to Tallinn. She let us live in her apartment until we would get a new one. Estonians treated us very well. The neighbors took our things after we left and when we came back they returned all of them. We even did not ask for them. The brought our furniture and other things. Aunt Sarah stayed with Masha. Mother and I returned to our apartment. We shared one room, but still we were happy to be back. We were happy that our miseries and wanderings were over.

When we came back to Tallinn, I found out about the dreadful fate of three Estonian Jews, who were not willing to get evacuated. There were very many of them. People did not believe those atrocities committed by Germans, thinking it to be Soviet propaganda, concocted against Jews whom they hated. That is why many people stayed, in Tallinn in particular. Jews fled from Tartu; those who stayed were executed soon. It was scary! In Tallinn it took Germans a month to get all the Jews for execution. Men were kept in Tallinn prison, women and kids in the camp near Lake Harku 23.

I think many Jews stayed in Tallinn because of Rabbi Aba Gomer 24. He was the one who convinced Jews that there were no reasons for escaping from Germans, saying that it would not be worse than under the Soviet regime. He admitted that Jews might be oppressed in some way and restricted, but that he did not think that Germans, cultured and civilized people, killed Jews! Doctor Gomer and his family stayed in Tallinn. He was killed by Germans on the first day of the occupation. His entire family was murdered.

Mother had a friend from childhood. Before she met Father, she even wanted to marry him. That man stayed, because he could not leave his paralyzed sister. He was killed on the street. Some of the local citizens pointed him out to the Germans – ‘Here is a Jew!’ – and he was shot at once. There were many stories like that. So many of my friends and pals from lyceum and Maccabi died. Some of them were killed in actions, others in Tallinn…

Not only the Germans exterminated Estonian Jews. At the beginning of the war mother’s brother German Rosenko perished. When we came back to Tallinn, we got the documents of his death. It was a story, which was even covered in the newspapers: a common grave with 40 cadavers was found in the prison yard in Tartu. They identified the names of the perished and German was among them. Nobody doubted that they were shot by Germans. Only many, many years later we found out the truth. Those people were arrested by Soviet people before the outbreak of war. We do not even know the grounds for German’s arrest. Now it is not important. They were executed by the Soviet regime before the German occupation of Estonia.

Some of my pals from gymnasium got back from evacuation, from the front. One guy whom I was seeing during my studies at the lyceum also came back. We even wanted to get married after the war. He was drafted into the army during the first days of the war. He was a military interpreter, then he was a reconnoiterer during the blockade of Leningrad 25.

We wrote to each other during evacuation. Once I sent him a letter with pictures of me and my friend Reima who studied at Tartu school with me. She was in evacuation in Fergana, so we met there. In his letters he told me that the Estonian should write letters to him. I gave Reima his field address and said, ‘Write to him.’ At that time I did not know that I destroyed my love with my own hands. Reima was very beautiful and my friend liked her. They often wrote to each other. After the war he found her and they got married. It was a shock for me. Before going to the front he told me to wait for him and I did. He did not keep his word. My pain is gone and good reminiscences are left. Finally, he brought a lot of good things in my life. In early 1970s Reima and her husband left for Israel.

Shortly after our return I resumed my studies. The Art Institute was open again and the rector, Starkov, came back from the evacuation. I did well, even got my scholarship increased because of excellent marks. I met my future husband, Victor Mellov, during my studies. My classmate Markovich came back from the front and found me. He studied at the legal department of the university and Victor had studied with him before. They were friends and Markovich introduced me to him. We liked each other and started dating.

Both of us were very busy and we saw each other seldom in the evening. We had to get ready for our studies. Usually we met in the morning on the way to classes. We walked, talked and sometimes got so carried away that we were late for classes. We did not want to part. We decided to get married, but both of us were studying, had no money other than the scholarship, and no apartment. It was not the only obstacle.

Victor was Estonian, born in 1924 in Tallinn. His father was a joiner, his mother did not work. His natural mother died young and Victor wars raised by his stepmother. His fate was very hard. Victor went to the lyceum, but could not finish it as he had to work. He worked in the harbor as a sailor on a small ship. When Germany attacked the USSR, Victor understood that Estonia would also be occupied soon. He and his friends were concerned and they decided to reach Finland by boat. Of course, it was a crazy idea, but they succeeded.

Victor was not in the camp of Estonian fugitives in Finland. His relative lived in America. He was the captain of a ship. Victor decided to take a ship to Sweden, wherefrom he could get to America and find his relatives. Victor and his friends were captured by Germans in Finland. They said that they were Estonians and the Germans took them to Tallinn, to Patarei Prison. Victor was there for eight months. He was afflicted with typhus and was about to die.

In 1944, when the Germans started forming the Estonian legion SS, they mobilized Estonians. They also took some Estonian guys from prison. Victor was released from prison and mobilized. I do not know what would have happened to Victor, if his parents had not interfered. They persuaded an Estonian surgeon to operate on Victor and remove his appendicitis. While Victor was in hospital, the Germans had left Tallinn. Thus, he was saved.

Later, Victor wrote in his books: ‘No matter what adversities people have to experience, human relations are always there, and people help each other all the time. If you cannot find a way out – talk to people and they will always help you.’ This topic is covered in all of his books and it is well written. He is a very talented writer. The fact that Victor was in Finland during Soviet times, was in his ways. He did not conceal this fact and openly wrote about it in his forms. The Soviet regime found it very suspicious, as they did not know what he was doing there … In general, all people who were abroad were under suspicion. That is why Victor was not admitted to the Party, even though he was a Komsomol member.

I cannot say that Victor’s parents were happy about our intention to get married. They had a practical vision: both of us were students, whose scholarship and odd jobs would not be enough to get by. Besides, we did not have a place to live. My mother was flatly against my marriage to an Estonian. She did not think of the material side of things. Aunt Sarah was also against it, but not as ardently as mother. We argued for a long time, and eventually Mother told me, ‘Leave, and you are not our child any longer.’ I cried, but still I did not want to let my beloved go. We got married in 1947.

Of course, we did not have a posh wedding. It was the time of hunger and the attitude of our kin did not allow us to feel like having parties. After the registration of our marriage we came home, to the room where I was living with my mother. The three of us shared one room.

I finally resumed my previous relationship with Mother only after my son Oleg was born in 1949, when I finished my studies. Oleg reconciled us all. Mother adored him and Victor’s parents also liked him a lot. In general, they were happy to have a grandson. Victor’s Dad met me in the maternity ward and led me to the car supporting me. My father-in-law was a good person. He often sat in for my pictures.

My mother helped me a lot. She took care of my son Oleg and loved him. When in 1956 my daughter Zoya was born, Mother did not like her as much. She took after my mother-in-law: fair-haired, gray-eyed. Oleg looked like my father. I chose Russian names for my children. During the war the novel ‘The Young Guard’ 27 by Fadeyev 26 came out, and we enjoyed reading it. The main character was Oleg. I named my son after him. My daughter was named after the famous partisan Zoya Kosmedimianskaya, who was shot by Germans. My husband did not mind that, but our relatives were not pleased. My aunt wanted my kids to have Jewish names and my husband’s kin – Estonian. Anyway, none of them bore a grudge.

It was difficult for me to find a job. It was a hard time for the Jews: the campaign against cosmopolitans 28, streamlined state anti-Semitism. When I was a student, I started making posters, took part in the exhibitions, even got a prize for my poster devoted to the Days of Estonian Culture, taking place in 1947 at Tallinn stadium. Besides, I liked making illustrations for books, especially for children.

Upon graduation, I sought a job with a publisher of children’s books. I was given an assignment for probation – to make illustrations for fairy tales. The art council approved of my work, but still I was not hired. The director did not like Jews and did not even conceal it. Only several years later, when another man was in charge of the publishers’, I was hired. I made posters dedicated to some memorable dates, events, but mostly they were political. I made many of them. Each of my political posters was to be approved by the central commission of the communist party of Estonia. They were supposed to put a stamp on my sketch with a note that it was ideologically correct.

I never held back that I was a Jew. Knowing that in the Soviet Union it is dangerous to keep in touch with relatives abroad 29, I still mentioned in my forms that my sister was living in Israel. I was never persecuted, even during the campaign against cosmopolitans. When I finished the institute, I joined the Party right away and I became a member of Artist Council of Estonia. I did not have any conditions to do my job – the three of us were living in one dark small room. When I received a prize for my poster, I was given a room in the graphics workshop. I think that in Estonia the campaign against cosmopolitans was not as spread as in other parts of the USSR.

In Estonia the Soviet regime mostly struggled against Estonian nationalists – they were considered to be protesters against Soviet occupation. I think those nationalists were randomly selected. The rector of our Art Institute, Starkov, was accused of nationalism. I took the floor against his expulsion during the general meeting of the members of the Artist Council. I said that I had known him for many years and he had never dealt with politics and the things he was accused of, that he just always worked on sculptures. I said he was a great sculptor, a wonderful teacher and Estonia should take pride in him.

My speech got fervid feedback in the Artist Council. The secretary of the party organization called me on the carpet and said that I was wrong, going against the Party. He demanded that I should take my words back in public. I was called twice to the central party committee and every time I left a letter where I indicated that the charges against Starkov were spurious. He was a great rector and teacher. None of his student can say a bad word about him. I thought that at least they would expel me from the Party, but to my surprise it did not happen. I was in constant fear.

In 1948 there was the second deportation of Estonian citizens. This time the farmers were deported – those people who worked from dawn till sunset. Collectivization started in Estonia 30. In the USSR it took place in the early 1930s, but Estonian peasants did not want to join kolkhozes. It was not common for us. Peasants lived with their families on separate farmsteads. Those who were against joining a kolkhoz, were deported.

It was harder for me in early 1953, when the Doctors’ Plot 31 took place. Estonia was also affected by that. Anti-Semitism was broader. There were a lot of people from the Soviet Union who came to Estonia after the war. They did not doubt a single word spoken by the Party. If the Party said, it was true that the Jewish doctors were murders, then this inferred that all Jews were bad.

At that time I was a member of the board of Artist Council, and dossiers of some of the Jewish artists were under consideration at our general meetings. I was not called for such meetings but still I got many anonymous insulting letters. My husband also got defamatory letters saying how he, an Estonian, could have married a Jew. After that there were rumors in town regarding the deportation of Jews. Some even said that special trains heading for Siberia were ready for the Jews. It was scary. I was sure that I would be deported. Not only I, but my mother and aunt would not stand that trip. Those were hard times! Thank God, we got away with that.

I vividly understand that only Stalin’s death saved us. When I found out about his death, I took it as personal grief. I understood that something was wrong in the Soviet Union, but I did not associate it with Stalin. I sincerely believed that we survived the war owing to him, thinking that he took care of us, USSR citizens, doing his best for us to have a good living. I thought his death a tragedy for me and for the entire country. I cried, and other people as well. I had a feeling as if a close person had died.

An even bigger tragedy for me was Khrushchev’s 32 speech at the Twentieth Party Congress 33. At first, his speech was not published and even party members did not know what had happened. Then his speech was partially covered in the press. When I read it, I was almost killed by the news. The people who were in exile during the first deportation in 1941, started coming back. There was another deportation in 1948, when the peasants unwilling to join kolkhozes were deported. Those few who survived the Gulag 34 also came back.

Their stories were full of horror! So many people were killed, so many worthy people were sent to the camps by Stalin! Terrible! Probably some people knew about it when Stalin was alive, but they were afraid to talk about it. Most of them preferred to keep their mouth shut. It seemed to us that the NKVD controlled everybody’s life.

At any rate there was a constant interference in the life of our family. During the war my husband was in Finland and he was always blamed for it. I was not trusted either: I had a sister in Israel and according to the Soviet notions I could not be trusted. After the war Rika and I did not write letters to each other, as we were afraid. Soon we resumed our communication. Of course, I understand that our life in the Soviet Union was not quite right: we depended on NKVD actions, having fear all the time, but still nobody said anything and neither did I. After the Twentieth Party Congress my belief in the Party was undermined. I understood that I should quit as it would be hard for me to find a job.

After Stalin’s death I never felt anti-Semitism. My colleagues always treated me very well. There was no biased attitude to the Jews in the Artist Council. But my children at school often were told by their classmates that they were not pure Estonians, and their mother was a Jew. I found out about that when they grew up. Probably they did not want to get me involved.

We lived in a poky room, which was humid. My daughter had lung problems. She had to be in a sanatorium for two years. When the Artist Council built the house in the center, close to the Old Town, I was given an apartment there right away. All of us moved into the new apartment. At first we lived there with my mother; Aunt Sarah lived with my sister Masha. When Masha got married, my aunt did not get along with Masha’s husband. They had arguments all the time. Then my mother moved into Masha’s place and Aunt Sarah came to us. When Victor’s father died, we took my mother-in-law to us. My mother died in 1978. She survived Aunt Sarah by one year. Both of them were buried in the Jewish cemetery in Tallinn.

I worked a lot. I took part in many exhibitions in Estonia and all over the Soviet Union. I was awarded prizes twice. I painted a lot, made portraits of my relatives and friends. I did not give that up when I was employed by the publishers for making illustrations for books. I remember I made a portrait of Eri Klias, son of my pal from lyceum, Anna Gourevish, married name Klias. Eri went to music school and I made sketches during his classes. Then Eri became a famous conductor. I also painted a daughter of my pal from Tartu. Later I took her picture as a prototype of Snow White in illustrations for this tale. Now Anna takes her granddaughter Diana to me. She is the daughter of Eri and my Snow White.

My husband also worked hard. He wrote a lot. His pen name was Andres Valaa. He did not have a lot of spare time, but still he did not want to spend it in the family. He liked loud parties and gambling. Of course, it was not easy for me, but on the other hand he was an interesting person and I loved him. Victor’s friends were also very interesting people. I did not mind if they came to us. It was very important for me that Victor treated Jews with deep respect. He had no drop of anti-Semitism in him.

I raised the children. We did not follow Jewish traditions at home. Mother and Aunt marked Jewish holidays and we always went to Mother on holidays. The children knew about the holidays and how they were traditionally celebrated. When they were young, they took no interest in religion and traditions. My daughter is still not religious. When my son reached his mature age, he started being fond of religion and traditions. He felt himself a Jew. Recently he and our rabbi took a trip to Israel. They had to spend the whole night at Paris airport waiting for the connecting flight and were talking. The rabbi told my son that he was a true, pious Jew. My Oleg was impressed by it.

My daughter, like me in childhood, liked dancing. She entered a choreography school and finished it successfully. She was talented and she was offered a job in our theater, the ‘Estonia.’ She did not become a prima ballet dancer, but still she was rather famous. Her ballet career was short. She could not dance any more after she had a leg injury. Zoya entered drama school and then worked in the theater again.

In my opinion, she was not very lucky in her private life. Her first husband, one Laasik, was a very gifted actor. In 1975 their son Lauri was born. Then Zoya’s husband started drinking and they divorced. Zoya’s second husband was Chinese, an acupuncture expert. His ancestors came from China and he was born and raised here. His last name was Lei. Their son Ran Ananda was born in 1980.

Both of my grandsons are very good. Lauri is very gifted. He studies at the producers’ department. He is handsome and athletic. He is married and has a child. Sometimes he calls on me. Lauri is living in Tartu. Ran is working in construction. He is also a good boy. He served in the army. He wanted to be a pilot, but he could not enter pilot school because of unfinished secondary education. He dropped his studies at the lyceum. Zoya bought a farmstead, where she is living now. She liked the countryside since childhood, enjoys growing things. Of course, she does not do it all the time. She has a grand piano and she plays. She also teaches choreography to children. She is pleased with her life now.

When Oleg was young, he was fond of technical things. Then all of a sudden, art appealed to him and he entered the design department of the Art Institute. He graduated from it and started working. He married a wonderful Estonian lady, Ene. She graduated from the architecture department of Tallinn engineering institute. She is a very good girl. I love and respect her as my own child. Ene makes wonderful puppets. Oleg and Ene lived with us for a while after getting married. In 1972 their daughter Saave was born.

When my granddaughter was born, I retired as my help was needed. I enjoyed taking care of the baby. In 1978 my second granddaughter was born. My son insisted that she should be named Sima. According to Jewish tradition children are named after deceased relatives. When I wrote to my sister Rika in Israel that my granddaughter was named after me, while I was still alive, she said that it was a big honor for me as I was alive and my granddaughter was carrying my name. Alexander was born after Sima, in 1980. The youngest, born in 1983, was called Jacob after my father. I took care of all of them.

Now they are adults and have their own lives. The eldest granddaughter Saava lives in England. Her husband is British. She and her husband are philosophers. Sima and her family live in Israel, but both of my grandchildren are studying in Tallinn. I am happy for both of them. They are not drunkards or drug addicts, but good people. They come to see me. Ene also comes often and calls me. In spite of the fact that Oleg and Ene are divorced, I get along with her.

Now Oleg lives in Tartu with his second family. He has two children in his second marriage: daughter Kolla, born in 1999, and son Pele, born in 2001. Kolla is finishing the first grade. She loves dancing. Pelle still goes to kindergarten. He likes drawing the most. He says, ‘I am an artist now.’ Indeed, he is very talented.

For a long time I was not in touch with my elder sister Rika, who was living in Israel. After work we kept in touch for a while, and dropped it when the Doctors’ Plot commenced. I did not know anything about Rika for a long time. Then she found me via the Red Cross and we started keeping in touch again. Rika wrote that her husband died and she got married again. Her second husband was called Kron. Rika’s elder son Yakov taught at a school for handicapped children. Then he became the principal of that school. Rika’s husband was a politician and she was interested in that. Her second husband also died soon and she became a widow again. She never married again, but lived with her daughter and worked.

When Jews started immigrating to Israel, I was not going to leave anywhere. The matter is that my husband was a Lithuanian, a Catholic. I could not picture my life in another country. This is my country, the land of my relatives. My sister Masha and her husband left. Of course, I did not judge anybody; everybody has the right to make their own decisions. I always followed the events taking place in Israel, especially during the wars. First my sister Rika, who was not only a sister, but a friend to me, then my sister Masha moved there.

Of course, I wanted to see the country and my sisters. I managed to go there only in 1995. At that time I told my husband, ‘If I do not go now, I never will.’ It was hard for me to be there. I went in April, but it was sultry. I could barely stand the heat. In general, the atmosphere in Israel was strange for me. I know and love Ivrit and Yiddish, Jewish literature, but I am used to Estonian culture, to aloofness of some kind. If I were younger, it would be easier for me to adapt, but at my age it is impossible. I would not be able to live there. If I had to escape there from horrors and war, I would go there, but still I would miss Estonia, its cold sea.

I liked Jerusalem a lot, its ancient architecture. It is an amazing city. When I was by the Wailing Wall, I felt ashamed in a way. I wanted to feel that I was at the sacred place for Jews, but I could not feel it. It was not mine. Estonia was mine. I love both Estonians and Jews. Maybe it is not normal. Both of my sisters got wonderfully acclimatized in Israel. Masha is no longer alive. She died in 2004.Her husband is still alive. He gets by very well. Rika is living in a nursing home. She is 96. Last year my son went to Israel and visited her. She does no seem to understand what is going on. Oleg brought her picture. It is hard to recognize her – a little old lady with snow white hair. She always dyed her hair.

During the Soviet times I could not leave the country. I could travel anywhere throughout the Soviet Union, but I could not even think of going overseas. I traveled a lot across the country. I was in Latvia, Lithuania, Kiev, Moscow, Leningrad, and even had friends there. My husband and I went on vacation to the Caucasus and Crimea. I had friends from other countries.

Once I thought that the Jews from the Soviet Union were only Jews by birth. It seemed to me that they were completely assimilated, did not know the language and the rites. There was one case which made me think better. I often went to the Artists’ Houses, which existed during the Soviet times. There we could work and then relax. It was a combination of recreation and work. Once I was in the Artists’ House in Palanga, Lithuania. There were a lot of illustrators from many Soviet cities – Moscow, Leningrad, Minsk, Kiev, Tbilisi. All of them were very good. We celebrated New Year together. We had a nice and big cake, champagne. I started singing old Jewish song in Ivrit. After the applause, I asked them if they knew in what language I was singing. I was very surprised to hear that all of them knew as they were Jews!

My first trip abroad was to Paris in 1975. There was an international conference of the artists and writers, who are working for children. I could not imagine that I was allowed to go there. I always wrote in my forms that my sister was living Israel, which made me unreliable automatically. I was very surprised when the central committee of the party in Estonia proposed my candidature to the Artists’ Council. I went to the committee, to the person who suggested that I should go. He turned out to be a nice person. I honestly told him that my sister was living in Israel. How could he risk sending me there? I did not know if he was aware of that fact and I did not want him to get into trouble because of that. He smiled at me and that was it.

I did go to Paris, though I could not believe it. The conference took place in the UNESCO premises. It was very interesting for me. I was present at all meetings, and took notes. It was strange for me that most of the people who came from the USSR, were not interested in the conference. They skipped the meetings and strolled along the city. When the conference was over, French people organized a tour in Paris as well as excursions in three cities of France. I wished I had known French!

I was happy to meet our relatives, who were living in Germany – the daughters of Mother’s sister Dina. She married a German and left for his home country. Before the war, Mother wrote to Dina, but after the war it was impossible. Those people whose relatives were living abroad were very suspicious to the Soviet regime, but their relatives being in Germany was almost a crime. Thus we did not know anything about them. Only after perestroika 35 they found us.

I went to see them and my son also went for a visit. Then Dina’s children came to Estonia a couple of times when Dina was not alive any longer. I do not remember when she died. She was past 90. I met three of my cousins. I stayed in Bremen with the family of Dina’s elder daughter Gertrude Ossa, and the rest came to Bremen to meet me. Gertrude studied theology and her husband was a pastor at an old interesting church in Bremen.

The middle daughter Inge looks like her mother did in her youth: bright blue-eyed blond. Inge is a ballet dancer. She had her own ballet school. During the war Inge went to the front to the German soldiers with the performances. During one of her concerts she met her future husband, who was an actor. It was amazing that all of them managed to survive in Germany during the war. Inge said that her father quit his job during the war. He was a teacher and many people in town knew him. Some people might remember that his wife was a Jew. So he went to live in the forest and worked as a forester. Then they moved from one place to another.

The younger daughter Krista had no idea whatsoever that her mother was a Jew. She was even a member of the Hitlerjugend 36. I also met her. She lives with her family in Canada, but came to Germany to see me. Krista’s husband was a tank man during the war. His tank was on fire, but still he survived, despite of severe burns. He had face lifting operations over a period of two years. Krista was working at that hospital as a nurse, when he was there. They fell in love with each other and got married. They have many children. All of them are living in Canada. Krista’s husband is an optician. He is working for a large company, which produces complex optics. I keep in touch with my relatives. We talk and visit each other.

I started taking an interest in politics when I became older. It all started from Perestroika, Gorbachev 37. What an interesting life we had! Of course, even before perestroika we had much more freedom in Estonia than they did in other parts of the USSR. We were better informed as we were listening to Finnish radio and watched Finish TV. Thus, we knew what was going on in the world and in the USSR. I was delighted by perestroika anyway.

When Gorbachev went to England to meet Margaret Thatcher, I was pleased that she was interested in his visit. Gorbachev was a new type of Soviet politician and I liked that he was a smart and well-mannered man. I liked his spouse as well. She was interested in art and was knowledgeable about it. She was not a mere shadow of her husband, but a personality. They were given a very warm welcome during their trips abroad. I liked it. I started following the news, reading newspapers. Gorbachev brought a lot of interesting things into our lives.

My husband died two years ago [in 2004] after a long disease. He was buried in the Tallinn cemetery, where famous people – writers, actors and politicians – are buried. I have been on my own since then.

At that time, when Gorbachev was at power, the Jewish community was founded. Now it seems to me that it has always been there. It is hard to imagine our lives without it. We really need it. There are such wonderful people there. It is hard to work there! But everybody does his/her job very well and with pleasure. There are even non-Jews who are working there, but they are so dedicated and caring!

Now I do not leave the house and use walkers if I have to go somewhere. The cleaning lady from the community comes to me. She is not a Jew, but still we are friends. The community is wonderful! I wish I could go there more often, which I could do earlier. I used to go there on all Jewish holidays. Once a month the former students of the Jewish lyceum, who studied there before war, get together. Those meetings mean a lot to us. There is not always a chance to meet with your pals for a talk. Everybody goes there, if he physically can.

My exhibitions were held in the community building as well. When I turned 80, my jubilee was celebrated there and an art exhibition was arranged. I invited all my fellow students, who were still in Estonia. Even some of the teachers came from the institute: Olpert, who taught black pencil drawing and Olkaf, who taught painting. I gave one of my pictures to the community. I am happy that it is there and can be seen by many people.

I admire the Jewish lyceum, which was founded by our community. It is in the building of the former Jewish lyceum. It is a very good lyceum, which provides excellent education. Sometimes its students come to me to take a look at my pictures and illustrations of books. Many of them like to listen to the stories from the old days. They are good kids. It is a pity that the subjects are taught in Russian there and most of the kids do not know Estonian very well. They have to live in Estonia, continue their studies after lyceum and work. It will be hard without decent knowledge of Estonian.

In 1991 a putsch 38 took place in the USSR. It was scary. There was a threat that the former Soviet system, which was before Gorbachev, could come back. I understood that there was no stopping them and there might be bloodshed. It was a time of worries and horrors. There were tanks in Tallinn. Large stones were brought in the streets for the tanks not to pass. The tanks were expected by the television tower. We were worried. Everybody was ready to stand up for a free life. Fortunately, our government managed to stop the militaries. Meanwhile they got the message that the members of the GKChP were arrested, and a couple of days later, there was the breakup of the Soviet Union. I do not regret it.

It was right that Estonia joined the European Union. We always were a part of Europe. We needed that. It was also good that Estonia joined the NATO as we did not have the best relationship with our neighbors. It would be very dangerous to count only on our forces. Estonia is a small country, which needs to be protected. If we go back 15 year ago, many things have changed and not all the changes are for the better, especially when it comes to the attitude towards family, towards children.

Of course, I left the communist party after the breakup of the Soviet Union. At times I feel that I am ‘red,’ not ‘Soviet red.’ I do not like the fact that there are so many poor people now who cannot provide for their families, have no place to live. I do not like the fact that there are so many orphans, while their parents are still alive. I do not like that parents cannot pay attention to their children, as they are running around trying to find a way to make money for a living, and the kids are left to their own.

Children start drinking and get addicted to drugs. I am against selling alcohol to kids. There were all kinds of circles and activities for children. After classes they could go to music school, dancing, art courses, sports clubs. All of that was free of charge. Now children can attend what they want but the parents have to pay for it, and they cannot always afford it. During the Soviet times higher and secondary education was free of charge. Students even were paid scholarship in order for them not to be hungry. The utilities did not cost much, and now many people have to spend most of their income on that. Health care was free and medicine was affordable.

People could go to the theater, concerts, art exhibitions, and they could afford it. Theaters and museums were full of people. Educated people were respected: scientists, doctors, artists, writers and actors. Now only those who have money think that they deserve respect. There are very many people who are bragging about their riches, but they have no education and culture as they do not find it necessary.

It was always unacceptable for me. I can only hope that it was just a stage in the development of our country, which will be survived like a children’s disease and then things will get better and people will have values other than money.

Glossary:

1 Jewish community of Estonia

On 30th March 1988 in a meeting of Jews of Estonia, consisting of 100 people, convened by David Slomka, a resolution was made to establish the Community of Jewish Culture of Estonia (KJCE) and in May 1988 the community was registered in the Tallinn municipal Ispolkom. KJCE was the first independent Jewish cultural organization in the USSR to be officially registered by the Soviet authorities. In 1989 the first Ivrit courses started, although the study of Ivrit was equal to Zionist propaganda and considered to be anti-Soviet activity. Contacts with Jewish organizations of other countries were established. KJCE was part of the Peoples' Front of Estonia, struggling for an independent state. In December 1989 the first issue of the KJCE paper Kashachar (Dawn) was published in Estonian and Russian language. In 1991 the first radio program about Jewish culture and activities of KJCE, 'Sholem Aleichem,' was broadcast in Estonia. In 1991 the Jewish religious community and KJCE had a joined meeting, where it was decided to found the Jewish Community of Estonia.

2 Nikolai’s army

Soldier of the tsarist army during the reign of Nicholas I when the draft lasted for 25 years.

3 Ulmanis, Karlis (1877-1942)

The most prominent politician in pre-World War II Latvia. Educated in Switzerland, Germany and the USA, Ulmanis was one of founders of Latvian People's Council (Tautas Padome), which proclaimed Latvia's independence on November 18, 1918. He then became the first prime minister of Latvia and held this post in several governments from 1918 to 1940. In 1934, Ulmanis dissolved the parliament and established an authoritarian government. He allowed President Alberts Kviesis to serve the rest of the term until 1936, after which Ulmanis proclaimed himself president, in addition to being prime minister. In his various terms of office he worked to resist internal dissension - instituting authoritarian rule in 1934 - and military threats from Russia. Soviet occupation forced his resignation in 1940, and he was arrested and deported to Russia, where he died. Ulmanis remains a controversial figure in Latvia. A sign of Ulmanis still being very popular in Latvia is that his grand-nephew Guntis Ulmanis was elected president in 1993.

4 Tallinn Jewish Gymnasium

During the Soviet period, the building hosted Vocational School #1. In 1990, the school building was restored to the Jewish community of Estonia; it is now home to the Tallinn Jewish School.

5 Pushkin, Alexandr (1799-1837)

Russian poet and prose writer, among the foremost figures in Russian literature. Pushkin established the modern poetic language of Russia, using Russian history for the basis of many of his works. His masterpiece is Eugene Onegin, a novel in verse about mutually rejected love. The work also contains witty and perceptive descriptions of Russian society of the period. Pushkin died in a duel.

6 Lermontov, Mikhail, (1814-1841)

Russian poet and novelist. His poetic reputation, second in Russia only to Pushkin's, rests upon the lyric and narrative works of his last five years. Lermontov, who had sought a position in fashionable society, became enormously critical of it. His novel, A Hero of Our Time (1840), is partly autobiographical. It consists of five tales about Pechorin, a disenchanted and bored nobleman. The novel is considered a classic of Russian psychological realism.

7 Hashomer Hatzair ('The Young Watchman')

Left-wing Zionist youth organization, which started in Poland in 1912 and managed to gather supporters from all over Europe. Their goal was to educate the youth in the Zionist mentality and to prepare them to immigrate to Palestine. To achieve this goal they paid special attention to the so-called shomer-movement (boy scout education) and supported the re-stratification of the Jewish society. They operated several agricultural and industrial training grounds (the so-called chalutz grounds) to train those who wanted to immigrate. In Transylvania the first Hashomer Hatzair groups were established in the 1920s. During World War II, members of the Hashomer Hatzair were leading active resistance against German forces, in ghettoes and concentration camps. After the war, Hashomer Hatzair was active in 'illegal' immigration to Palestine.

8 Maccabi World Union

International Jewish sports organization whose origins go back to the end of the 19th century. A growing number of young Eastern European Jews involved in Zionism felt that one essential prerequisite of the establishment of a national home in Palestine was the improvement of the physical condition and training of ghetto youth. In order to achieve this, gymnastics clubs were founded in many Eastern and Central European countries, which later came to be called Maccabi. The movement soon spread to more countries in Europe and to Palestine. The World Maccabi Union was formed in 1921. In less than two decades its membership was estimated at 200,000 with branches located in most countries of Europe and in Palestine, Australia, South America, South Africa, etc.

9 Soviet-Finnish War (1939-40)

The Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939 to seize the Karelian Isthmus. The Red Army was halted at the so-called Mannengeim line. The League of Nations expelled the USSR from its ranks. In February-March 1940 the Red Army broke through the Mannengeim line and reached Vyborg. In March 1940 a peace treaty was signed in Moscow, by which the Karelian Isthmus, and some other areas, became part of the Soviet Union.

10 German Invasion of Poland

The German attack of Poland on 1st September 1939 is widely considered the date in the West for the start of World War II. After having gained both Austria and the Bohemian and Moravian parts of Czechoslovakia, Hitler was confident that he could acquire Poland without having to fight Britain and France. (To eliminate the possibility of the Soviet Union fighting if Poland were attacked, Hitler made a pact with the Soviet Union, the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact.) On the morning of 1st September 1939, German troops entered Poland. The German air attack hit so quickly that most of Poland's air force was destroyed while still on the ground. To hinder Polish mobilization, the Germans bombed bridges and roads. Groups of marching soldiers were machine-gunned from the air, and they also aimed at civilians. On 1st September, the beginning of the attack, Great Britain and France sent Hitler an ultimatum - withdraw German forces from Poland or Great Britain and France would go to war against Germany. On 3rd September, with Germany's forces penetrating deeper into Poland, Great Britain and France both declared war on Germany.

11 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

Non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union, which became known under the name of Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Engaged in a border war with Japan in the Far East and fearing the German advance in the west, the Soviet government began secret negotiations for a non-aggression pact with Germany in 1939. In August 1939 it suddenly announced the conclusion of a Soviet-German agreement of friendship and non-aggression. The Pact contained a secret clause providing for the partition of Poland and for Soviet and German spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.

12 Occupation of the Baltic Republics (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania)

Although the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact regarded only Latvia and Estonia as parts of the Soviet sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, according to a supplementary protocol (signed in 28th September 1939) most of Lithuania was also transferred under the Soviets. The three states were forced to sign the 'Pact of Defense and Mutual Assistance' with the USSR allowing it to station troops in their territories. In June 1940 Moscow issued an ultimatum demanding the change of governments and the occupation of the Baltic Republics. The three states were incorporated into the Soviet Union as the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republics.

13 Komsomol

Communist youth political organization created in 1918. The task of the Komsomol was to spread the ideas of communism and involve the worker and peasant youth in building the Soviet Union. The Komsomol also aimed at giving a communist upbringing by involving the worker youth in the political struggle, supplemented by theoretical education. The Komsomol was more popular than the Communist Party because with its aim of education people could accept uninitiated young proletarians, whereas party members had to have at least a minimal political qualification.

14 Collective farm (in Russian kolkhoz)

In the Soviet Union the policy of gradual and voluntary collectivization of agriculture was adopted in 1927 to encourage food production while freeing labor and capital for industrial development. In 1929, with only 4% of farms in kolkhozes, Stalin ordered the confiscation of peasants' land, tools, and animals; the kolkhoz replaced the family farm.

15 Communal apartment

The Soviet power wanted to improve housing conditions by requisitioning 'excess' living space of wealthy families after the Revolution of 1917. Apartments were shared by several families with each family occupying one room and sharing the kitchen, toilet and bathroom with other tenants. Because of the chronic shortage of dwelling space in towns communal or shared apartments continued to exist for decades. Despite state programs for the construction of more houses and the liquidation of communal apartments, which began in the 1960s, shared apartments still exist today.

16 Deportations from the Baltics (1940-1953)

After the Soviet Union occupied the three Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania) in June 1940 as a part of establishing the Soviet system, mass deportation of the local population began. The victims of these were mainly but not exclusively those unwanted by the regime: the local bourgeoisie and the previously politically active strata. Deportations to remote parts of the Soviet Union continued up until the death of Stalin. The first major wave of deportation took place between 11th and 14th June 1941, when 36,000, mostly politically active people were deported. Deportations were reintroduced after the Soviet Army recaptured the three countries from Nazi Germany in 1944. Partisan fights against the Soviet occupiers were going on all up to 1956, when the last squad was eliminated. Between June 1948 and January 1950, in accordance with a Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the USSR under the pretext of 'grossly dodged from labor activity in the agricultural field and led anti-social and parasitic mode of life' from Latvia 52,541, from Lithuania 118,599 and from Estonai 32,450 people were deported. The total number of deportees from the three republics amounted to 203,590. Among them were entire Lithuanian families of different social strata (peasants, workers, intelligentsia), everybody who was able to reject or deemed capable to reject the regime. Most of the exiled died in the foreign land. Besides, about 100,000 people were killed in action and in fusillade for being members of partisan squads and some other 100,000 were sentenced to 25 years in camps.

17 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o'clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war. By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

18 Brith Trumpledor (Hebrew) meaning Trumpledor Society; right-wing Revisionist Jewish youth movement

It was founded in 1923 in Riga by Vladimir Jabotinsky, in memory of J. Trumpledor, one of the first fighters to be killed in Palestine, and the fortress Betar, which was heroically defended for many months during the Bar Kohba uprising. Its aim was to propagate the program of the revisionists and prepare young people to fight and live in Palestine. It organized emigration through both legal and illegal channels. It was a paramilitary organization; its members wore uniforms. They supported the idea to create a Jewish legion in order to liberate Palestine. From 1936-39 the popularity of Betar diminished. During WWII many of its members formed guerrilla groups.

19 NKVD

(Russ.: Narodnyi Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del), People's Committee of Internal Affairs, the supreme security authority in the USSR - the secret police. Founded by Lenin in 1917, it nevertheless played an insignificant role until 1934, when it took over the GPU (the State Political Administration), the political police. The NKVD had its own police and military formations, and also possessed the powers to pass sentence on political matters, and as such in practice had total control over society. Under Stalin's rule the NKVD was the key instrument used to terrorize the civilian population. The NKVD ran a network of labor camps for millions of prisoners, the Gulag. The heads of the NKVD were as follows: Genrikh Yagoda (to 1936), Nikolai Yezhov (to 1938) and Lavrenti Beria. During the war against Germany the political police, the KGB, was spun off from the NKVD. After the war it also operated on USSR-occupied territories, including in Poland, where it assisted the nascent communist authorities in suppressing opposition. In 1946 the NKVD was renamed the Ministry of the Interior.

20 Card system

The food card system regulating the distribution of food and industrial products was introduced in the USSR in 1929 due to extreme deficit of consumer goods and food. The system was cancelled in 1931. In 1941, food cards were reintroduced to keep records, distribute and regulate food supplies to the population. The card system covered main food products such as bread, meat, oil, sugar, salt, cereals, etc. The rations varied depending on which social group one belonged to, and what kind of work one did. Workers in the heavy industry and defense enterprises received a daily ration of 800 g (miners - 1 kg) of bread per person; workers in other industries 600 g. Non-manual workers received 400 or 500 g based on the significance of their enterprise, and children 400 g. However, the card system only covered industrial workers and residents of towns while villagers never had any provisions of this kind. The card system was cancelled in 1947.

21 All-Union pioneer organization

A communist organization for teenagers between 10 and 15 years old (cf: boy-/ girlscouts in the US). The organization aimed at educating the young generation in accordance with the communist ideals, preparing pioneers to become members of the Komsomol and later the Communist Party. In the Soviet Union, all teenagers were pioneers.

22 Estonian Rifle Corps

Military unit established in late 1941 as a part of the Soviet Army. The Corps was made up of two rifle divisions. Those signed up for the Estonian Corps by military enlistment offices were ethnic Estonians regardless of their residence within the Soviet Union as well as men of call-up age residing in Estonia before the Soviet occupation (1940). The Corps took part in the bloody battle of Velikiye Luki (December 1942 - January 1943), where it suffered great losses and was sent to the back areas for re-formation and training. In the summer of 1944, the Corps took part in the liberation of Estonia and in March 1945 in the actions on Latvian territory. In 1946, the Corps was disbanded.

23 Military execution on Lake Harku

Lake Harku is the second lake within the borders of Tallinn. Before WWII it was the place where Tallinn residents liked to relax in their pastime. When the Germans invaded Tallinn they captured about 1000 Jews, who either did not want or failed to evacuate. Men were taken to jail in the town where they were killed between 21st September and 10th October 1941. Women and children were killed at Lake Harku. Their dead bodies were buried in the swamp near the lake. In total about 700 people perished there.

24 Aba Gomer (?-1941)

Born in Belostok, Poland, and graduated from the Department of Philosophy of Bonn University. He lived in Tallinn from 1927 and was the chief rabbi of Estonia. In 1941, he was determined not to go into Soviet back areas and remained on the German-occupied territory. He was killed by Nazis in the fall of 1941.

25 Blockade of Leningrad

On September 8, 1941 the Germans fully encircled Leningrad and its siege began. It lasted until January 27, 1944. The blockade meant incredible hardships and privations for the population of the town. Hundreds of thousands died from hunger, cold and diseases during the almost 900 days of the blockade.

26 Fadeyev, Aleksandr (1901-1956)

Author of a book entitled The Young Guard, which praised the underground resistance of a group of young communists living under German occupation with crude distortions. It was criticized by the Russian propaganda as a means of ideological zombying of the young generation.

27 The Young Guard

This book, written by Aleksandr Fadeyev (1901-1956), praised the underground resistance of a group of young communists living under German occupation with crude distortions and was criticized by the Russian propaganda as a means of ideological zombying of the young generation.

28 Campaign against ‘cosmopolitans’

The campaign against 'cosmopolitans', i.e. Jews, was initiated in articles in the central organs of the Communist Party in 1949. The campaign was directed primarily at the Jewish intelligentsia and it was the first public attack on Soviet Jews as Jews. 'Cosmopolitans' writers were accused of hating the Russian people, of supporting Zionism, etc. Many Yiddish writers as well as the leaders of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee were arrested in November 1948 on charges that they maintained ties with Zionism and with American 'imperialism'. They were executed secretly in 1952. The anti-Semitic Doctors' Plot was launched in January 1953. A wave of anti-Semitism spread through the USSR. Jews were removed from their positions, and rumors of an imminent mass deportation of Jews to the eastern part of the USSR began to spread. Stalin's death in March 1953 put an end to the campaign against 'cosmopolitans.'

29 Keep in touch with relatives abroad

The authorities could arrest an individual corresponding with his/her relatives abroad and charge him/her with espionage, send them to concentration camp or even sentence them to death.

30 Collectivization in the USSR

In the late 1920s - early 1930s private farms were liquidated and collective farms established by force on a mass scale in the USSR. Many peasants were arrested during this process. As a result of the collectivization, the number of farmers and the amount of agricultural production was greatly reduced and famine struck in the Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus, the Volga and other regions in 1932-33.

31 Doctors’ Plot

The Doctors' Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin's reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

32 Khrushchev, Nikita (1894-1971)

Soviet communist leader. After Stalin's death in 1953, he became first secretary of the Central Committee, in effect the head of the Communist Party of the USSR. In 1956, during the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev took an unprecedented step and denounced Stalin and his methods. He was deposed as premier and party head in October 1964. In 1966 he was dropped from the Party's Central Committee.

33 Twentieth Party Congress

At the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 Khrushchev publicly debunked the cult of Stalin and lifted the veil of secrecy from what had happened in the USSR during Stalin's leadership.

34 Gulag

The Soviet system of forced labor camps in the remote regions of Siberia and the Far North, which was first established in 1919. However, it was not until the early 1930s that there was a significant number of inmates in the camps. By 1934 the Gulag, or the Main Directorate for Corrective Labor Camps, then under the Cheka's successor organization the NKVD, had several million inmates. The prisoners included murderers, thieves, and other common criminals, along with political and religious dissenters. The Gulag camps made significant contributions to the Soviet economy during the rule of Stalin. Conditions in the camps were extremely harsh. After Stalin died in 1953, the population of the camps was reduced significantly, and conditions for the inmates improved somewhat.

35 Perestroika (Russian for restructuring)

Soviet economic and social policy of the late 1980s, associated with the name of Soviet politician Mikhail Gorbachev. The term designated the attempts to transform the stagnant, inefficient command economy of the Soviet Union into a decentralized, market-oriented economy. Industrial managers and local government and party officials were granted greater autonomy, and open elections were introduced in an attempt to democratize the Communist Party organization. By 1991, perestroika was declining and was soon eclipsed by the dissolution of the USSR.

36 Hitlerjugend

The youth organization of the German Nazi Party (NSDAP). In 1936 all other German youth organizations were abolished and the Hitlerjugend became the only legal state youth organization. At the end of 1938, the SS took charge of the organization. From 1939 all young Germans between 10 and 18 were obliged to join the Hitlerjugend, which organized after-school activities and political education. Boys over 14 were also given pre-military training, and girls over 14 were trained for motherhood and domestic duties. In 1939 it had 7 million members. During World War II members of the Hitlerjugend served in auxiliary forces. At the end of 1944, 17-year-olds from the Hitlerjugend were drafted to form the 12th Panzer Division 'Hitlerjugend' and sent to the Western Front.

37 Gorbachev, Mikhail (1931- )

Soviet political leader. Gorbachev joined the Communist Party in 1952 and gradually moved up in the party hierarchy. In 1970 he was elected to the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, where he remained until 1990. In 1980 he joined the politburo, and in 1985 he was appointed general secretary of the party. In 1986 he embarked on a comprehensive program of political, economic, and social liberalization under the slogans of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring). The government released political prisoners, allowed increased emigration, attacked corruption, and encouraged the critical reexamination of Soviet history. The Congress of People's Deputies, founded in 1989, voted to end the Communist Party's control over the government and elected Gorbachev executive president. Gorbachev dissolved the Communist Party and granted the Baltic states independence. Following the establishment of the Commonwealth of Independent States in 1991, he resigned as president. Since 1992, Gorbachev has headed international organizations.

38 1991 Moscow coup d'etat

Starting spontaneously on the streets of Moscow, its leaders went public on 19th August. TASS (Soviet Telegraphical Agency) made an announcement that Gorbachev had been relieved of his duties for health reasons. His powers were assumed by Vice President Gennady Yanayev. A State Committee on the State of Emergency (GKChP) was established, led by eight officials, including KGB head Vladimir Kryuchkov, Soviet Prime Minister Valentin Pavlov, and Defense Minister Dmitry Yazov. Seizing on President Mikhail Gorbachev's summer absence from the capital, eight of the Soviet leader's most trusted ministers attempted to take control of the government. Within three days, the poorly planned coup collapsed and Gorbachev returned to the Kremlin. But an era had abruptly ended. The Soviet Union, which the coup plotters had desperately tried to save, was dead.

Mieczyslaw Weinryb

Mieczysław Weinryb ma 89 lat i jest inżynierem budowlanym. Urodził się w Zamościu, ale jeszcze przed wybuchem wojny przeniósł się do Warszawy. Wojnę przeżył w Związku Radzieckim. Zawsze był syjonistą, jednak nigdy nie udało mu się emigrować do Izraela. W czasie naszych rozmów często przytaczał długie fragmenty z Biblii, które niekiedy przeplatał krytyką zbyt ortodoksyjnej religijności. Spotkaliśmy się czterokrotnie w warszawskim mieszkaniu jego syna, który pracuje na Uniwersytecie w Yale. Wspólnie odtwarzaliśmy historię pana Weinryba i historię jego rodziny, oglądaliśmy rodzinne zdjęcia. Wiele z nich ocalało dzięki temu, że siostra pana Weinryba zabrała je przed wojną do Palestyny.

Rodzina
Dzieciństwo
Lata wojny
Lata powojenne

Rodzina

Nie pamiętam moich dziadków – zmarli zanim ja się urodziłem. Najstarsze osoby, które pamiętam w rodzinie to moi dwaj wujkowie. Brat mojej mamy miał dwie córki i syna. Nie pamiętam jego imienia oraz jego córek. Syn natomiast na imię miał Awigdor. Mieszkał w Lublinie. Brat mojego taty, Szalom Weinryb, miał syna Chaima Mojżesza i córkę Itę. Wuj był właścicielem młyna w Grabowcu, położonym 20 kilometrów od Zamościa. Okolica była żyzna, plony obfite, więc żyli dosyć dostatnio. Pomiędzy Zamościem a Grabowcem kursowały wtedy wozy, które - tak jak cygańskie - miały płócienne dachy. Przewoziło się nimi zarówno ludzi jak i różne towary. Na takich właśnie wozach jeździliśmy odwiedzać wuja i jego dzieci.

Mój ojciec miał także siostrę, Leę, która mieszkała w Kowlu. Po mężu nazywała się Rejder. Jej mąż był zarządcą w dużym młynie.

Mój ojciec nazywał się Eliasz Winryb. Urodził się około 1880 roku. Jego rodzina pochodziła z Zamościa. Nasi przodkowie, którzy przybyli do Polski kilka wieków wcześniej, należeli do Żydów sefardyjskich (sefardyjscy Żydzi osiedli się w mieście już pod koniec XVI wieku, ze względu na jego dobre położenie przy ważnym szlaku handlowym łączącym Warszawę, Lublin i Lwów). Ojciec prowadził sklep galanteryjny – sprzedawał swetry, wełnę, mufki, rękawiczki. Przychodzili do niego różni ludzie. Pamiętam, że ojciec zimą otwierał sklep w soboty po zmroku. Wszyscy tak robili, bo zimą szabas kończył się wcześnie; wtedy zawsze ktoś wpadał, ktoś czegoś potrzebował, na przykład kamasznicy przybiegali po nici. Sklep miał też swoje stałe klientki – żony oficerów z miejscowego garnizonu.

Ojciec był syjonistą. Zakupił nawet w Izraelu małą działkę z funduszu Keren ha-Jesod, ale ziemia nie była w za dobrej lokalizacji. Ojciec ubierał się po europejsku - nie nosił pejsów ani jarmułki. Zawsze miał krótki szczeciniasty zarost. Ojciec był dla nas bardzo dobry, czuły. Czasem się oczywiście denerwował. Miał zresztą sporo powodów do tego. Był kryzys gospodarczy, szczególnie 1929 był ciężkim rokiem.

Ojciec modlił się w sztiblu (w jidysz jest to mały dom modlitewny) z Żydami reformowanymi, takimi jak on. [od redakcji: w Zamościu wówczas żadna z żydowskich organizacji nie była oficjalnie uznawana przez Państwo. Życie religijne Żydów skupiało się wokół kilku mniejszych społeczności: Żydów ortodoksyjnych, reformowanych oraz chasydów. Żydzi ortodoksyjni mieli do swojej dyspozycji jedyną synagogę w mieście, podczas gdy reformowani oraz chasydzi modlili się w prywatnych domach modlitwy]. Pewnego dnia poszli całą grupą do synagogi ortodoksyjnej, ale zostali stamtąd przepędzeni.

Ojciec wraz ze swoimi przyjaciółmi działał na rzecz rozwoju edukacji. W 1921 roku wspólnie założyli w Zamościu szkołę Tarbutu, zwaną „Kadima”, co oznacza „naprzód” (była to prywatna szkoła żydowska uznawana przez Państwo). „Kadima” była szkołą czteroklasową. Fundusze na jej budowę pochodziły częściowo z wkładu własnego jej fundatorów, a częściowo ze zbiórek pieniężnych wśród mieszkańców Zamościa. Sam budynek był jednopiętrowy. Potem w Zamościu powstało gimnazjum żydowskie, ale z jego budową mój ojciec nie miał już żadnego związku.

Moja mama miała na imię Chana i urodziła się około 1880 roku. Pochodziła z Lublina. Jej rodzina mieszkała na słynnej ulicy żydowskiej – Lubartowskiej [była to ulica w samym sercu przedwojennej dzielnicy żydowskiej. Ulica ta często pojawia się we wspomnieniach lubelskich Żydów]. Nazwisko rodowe mojej mamy brzmiało Sztern. Rodzice poznali się prawdopodobnie przez swatów. ponieważ rodzina dziadków była ortodoksyjna. W ogóle to było bardzo ciekawe, obserwować jak wszystko się zmieniało. Nasze domostwo było już inne chociażby w odniesieniu do kwestii małżeństwa. Co prawda rodzice doradzali moim siostrom, jakiego męża wybrać, ale o szadchenie [swacie] nie było już mowy. Mniej więcej kiedy osiągnąłem wiek pełnoletniości, matka przestała nosić perukę. Nie oznacza to, że w piątki nie zapalała świec, to byłoby niedopuszczalne. Mama pomagała w sklepie, ale głównie zajmowała się prowadzeniem domu. Podobnie jak ojciec matka była syjonistką. Bała się jednak podróży przez morze. Wówczas do Palestyny emigrowało się najczęściej nielegalnie, statkami włoskimi albo przez Rumunię. Pewnie w końcu udałoby się ją przekonać, ale wybuchła wojna i rodzice nie zdążyli już wyjechać.

Miałem trzy siostry: Margolię, Sarę i Rywę oraz jednego brata – Mojżesza. Margolia była najstarsza. Urodziła się około 1902 roku. W Zamościu uczyła się w gimnazjum państwowym. Pod koniec lat 20. XX wieku wyjechała na studia do Warszawy. Skończyła tam Wolną Wszechnicę Polską, wydział przyrodniczo-matematyczny. Uczyła potem w szkole Tarbutu przy ulicy Nalewki 2. Nie zdążyła wyjechać do Palestyny, bo ją ciągle w tej szkole zatrzymywali prosząc, by została jeszcze trochę dłużej. Margolia miała najłagodniejszy charakter ze wszystkich moich sióstr. Zawsze się mną opiekowała. W rodzinie mówiło się nawet, że nigdy nie wyszła za mąż, bo poświęcała mi zbyt wiele czasu i uwagi. Była dla mnie jak druga matka.

Losy dwóch moich młodszych sióstr - Sary i Rywy - były podobne. Obie wyjechały do Palestyny w latach 20. XX wieku. Obie należały do Ha-Szomer Ha-Cair. W Zamościu przechodziły hachszarę. Był tam taki wykształcony w tym względzie agronom, który posiadał ogród warzywny i duże sady. On uczył szomrowców jak uprawiać ziemię.

Rywa urodziła się w 1906 roku. W Zamościu skończyła 6 klas gimnazjum. Ona pierwsza z naszej rodziny wyjechała do Palestyny. To było około 1925 roku. Na początku pracowała w prywatnym gospodarstwie u Arabów. Żyli tam w ciężkich warunkach. Panowała malaria. Nie mieli domów, tylko szałasy. Dopiero potem udało im się utworzyć kibuce. Rywa zamieszkała w kibucu Ein Harod.

Jeszcze w Zamościu moja siostra miała takiego, można powiedzieć, narzeczonego, nazywał się Szalom Luksemburg. On też przygotowywał się do wyjazdu, ale zwlekał z tym cały czas i w końcu Rywa pojechała bez niego. W Palestynie poznała swojego przyszłego męża. Nazywał się Josif Jawnai i pochodził z Litwy. Wcześniej nazywał się Slept, ale po przyjeździe do Palestyny zmienił nazwisko na hebrajskie. Był bardzo oczytany a przy tym również bardzo pracowity. Pamiętam, że posyłałem mu książki z Polski. W ogóle muszę przyznać, że miałem bardzo porządnych szwagrów. Z czasem Rywa i Josif usamodzielnili się. Zaczęli od hodowli kur, potem uprawiali sady, aż w końcu zaczęli hodować krowy. To bardzo poprawiło ich sytuację materialną. Przenieśli się z kibucu do miejscowości, która nazywa się Kfar Vitkin.

Sara była dwa lata starsza od Rywy, urodziła się w 1904 roku. Kształciła się w kierunku pedagogicznym. Potem pracowała jako wychowawczyni w sierocińcu w Kobryniu, pod Bydgoszczą, a potem gdzieś w okolicach Łodzi. Do Palestyny pojechała trochę później – po koniec lat 20. XX wieku. Sara, podobnie jak Rywa, wyszła za mąż już po przyjeździe do Palestyny. Jej mąż też miał na imię Josif. Josif Szifeldrin pochodził z Niemiec. Mieszkali w kibucu Kwucat Schiller obok Rechowot. Sara spędziła tam 70 lat. W kibucu pracowała jako wychowawczyni zajmując się dziećmi. Powodziło im się zupełnie dobrze - mieli swój dom otoczony kwiatami. W tym kibucu na początku wszyscy zajmowali się rolnictwem, a potem otworzyli fabrykę gumy, która dosyć dobrze prosperowała. Produkowali również na eksport, wysyłali swoje produkty nawet do krajów arabskich, ale oczywiście bez oznaczenia miejsca pochodzenia produktu.

Jeżeli chodzi o moje siostry, to muszę powiedzieć, że każda z nich różniła się od siebie, miała inny charakter. Jak już mówiłem Margolia miała najlepszy charakter. Była bardzo oddana. Rywa, która była najmłodsza, musiała wiele przejść, zanim do czegoś doszła. Kiedy wyjechała do Palestyny musiała nauczyć się żyć w skrajnie ciężkich warunkach. To odbiło się na jej charakterze. Była zahartowana. Uważała, że nie można zbyt wiele oczekiwać od życia. Sara, która wyjechała kilka lat później, nie miała już takich problemów jak Rywa. Od razu zamieszkała w kibucu, miała swój dom. I to też wpłynęło na jej usposobienie - nie miała w sobie tej surowości, która cechowała Rywę.

Mojżesz urodził się około 1909 roku. Uczęszczał do gimnazjum żydowskiego. Pewnego dnia, na wiosnę, kiedy grał z kolegami w piłkę nadepnął na gwóźdź. Został zawieziony do Lublina do szpitala, ale zmarł od gangreny. Miał wtedy 15 lat. Dziś wystarczyłby jeden zastrzyk, ale wtedy nie było jeszcze penicyliny. Rocznica śmierci Mojżesza wypadała w okolicach święta Pesach. Pamiętam, że każdego roku, kiedy ojciec czytał opowieść o tym jak Bóg ukarał faraona śmiercią wszystkich pierworodnych w Egipcie, zawsze bardzo płakał. Ta historia przypominała mu śmierć jego pierworodnego syna, którą bardzo ciężko przeżył.

Dzieciństwo

Urodziłem się 8 lutego 1915 roku w święto Purim. Imię dostałem po dziadku, który tak jak bohater historii purimowej [Megillat Ester] miał na imię Mordechaj. Byłem najmłodszy w rodzinie. Właściwie można powiedzieć, że jestem dzieckiem wojny [I wojny światowej]. Pamiętam, jak podczas bombardowań mama brała mnie na ręce i schodziliśmy wszyscy do piwnicy. Kiedy trochę podrosłem i zacząłem bawić się na ulicy, widziałem jak do miasta weszli żołnierze Gen. Hallera – znieważali Żydów, zatrzymywali ich i obcinali im brody, śpiewali „Żydku, dawaj brodę”, itp. Później kiedy przez Zamość przechodzili rosyjscy jeńcy wojenni, to my dzieci biegaliśmy za nimi. Oni robili różne zabawki, ptaszki z drewna i tego typu rzeczy. Oddawali je nam za bułkę.

Nigdy nie chodziłem do chederu, żeby „klepać” abecadło. Czasami z ciekawości zaglądałem tam przez okno. Nauczyciel miał swojego pomocnika. Do chederu chodziły takie małe trzy- czteroletnie dzieci, więc trzeba je było odprowadzać i przyprowadzać do szkoły. One tylko się uczyły „klepać modlitwy”, ale nic z nich nie rozumiały [od redakcji: rodzice Pana Weinryba nie byli zadowoleni z tradycyjnej formy edukacji w chederze, dlatego posłali syna do nowoczesnej szkoły syjonistycznej]. Kiedy miałem 6 lat zacząłem się uczyć w żydowskiej szkole podstawowej „Kadima” - tej samej, w której otwarcie zaangażowany był między innymi mój ojciec. Mieliśmy tam język hebrajski, no i oczywiście polski oraz inne przedmioty. Byłem pierwszym rocznikiem, który ukończył tę szkołę. Potem chodziłem do gimnazjum państwowego.

Miałem też swojego nauczyciela od religii, który przychodził do domu i przygotowywał mnie do bar micwy. To jest oczywiście tradycja. Chłopiec kiedy kończy 13 lat staje się mężczyzną. Prowadzi się go do synagogi, jednak wcześniej uczy się on specjalnej modlitwy i tak dalej. On musi umieć coś odczytać, zrozumieć. Więc ze mną też tak było. Miałem nauczyciela, który przychodził do domu i uczył mnie tego wszystkiego. Moja bar micwa wypadła na wiosnę. Pamiętam ten dzień, wszystko odbywało się w wielkiej synagodze. Gdy wyczytano moje imię miałem podejść i przeczytać fragment Tory. Serce trochę mocniej biło mi ze strachu czy wszystko dobrze pójdzie, no ale jakoś się udało. Potem przy modlitwie zakładało się tefilin – na rękę jedno pudełko a na czoło drugie - gdzie wewnątrz napisane jest dziesięcioro przykazań. Zakładałem tefilin może rok, może dwa, potem coraz rzadziej, rzadziej aż w końcu w ogóle przestałem. Tak samo jak moi koledzy.

Jako prezent na bar micwę dostałem trochę pieniędzy, za które mogłem sobie coś kupić. Nie mogłem się jednak zdecydować: rower czy radio? Myślałem nad tym i myślałem, a pieniądze powoli się rozchodziły na drobnostki i w końcu ani radia ani roweru sobie nie kupiłem. A jeżeli już o rowerach mowa to trzeba powiedzieć, że mieliśmy w Zamościu dwie żydowskie wypożyczalnie. Zamczer wypożyczał takie stare graty, u niego było dużo taniej i tam wypożyczali wszyscy, którzy dopiero zaczynali się uczyć jeździć. A drugi – Pekler - wypożyczał drożej, ale rowery miał porządne.

W 1930 roku pojechałem do Lublina, do rodziny, żeby zobaczyć otwarcie jesziwy „Chachmej Lublin” [od redakcji: jesziwa została założona z inicjatywy Agudat Izrael; jego rektorem i założycielem był M. Szapiro. Była to jedna z największych akademii talmudycznych w tamtym czasie. Jej otwarcie w dniu 24 czerwca 1925 roku było bardzo uroczyste i podniosłe. Z wielu miast dowożono ludzi specjalnie na to wydarzenie]. Miałem wtedy 15 lat. Rodzice nie mogli jechać razem ze mną. Wsadzili mnie więc do samochodu, który kursował na trasie Zamość – Lublin, a wujek odebrał mnie na miejscu. Pamiętam, że wtedy pierwszy raz w życiu jechałem samochodem. To była ciężarówka przystosowana do przewozu ludzi – z tyłu na przyczepie wzdłuż boków ustawione były ławki. Otwarcie jesziwy było bardzo uroczyste. Był ogromny tłum ludzi, więc w sumie niewiele zobaczyłem. Zresztą to było tak dawno temu, że nie pamiętam już żadnych szczegółów.

Kiedy wyjeżdżaliśmy na wakacje zawsze któreś z rodziców musiało zostać w domu. Trzeba było pilnować sklepu – wtedy zabiegało się o każdego klienta. Jechaliśmy zwykle do Krasnobrodu. To jest mniej więcej 20 kilometrów od Zamościa. Tam były wspaniałe lasy. Nie tak jak teraz, ale piękne bory. Drzewa były tak stare i gęste, że zatrzymywały światło. Wynajmowaliśmy od lokalnych chłopów pokój z kuchnią. W Krasnobrodzie były też pensjonaty, ale tam mieszkali ludzie, którzy przyjeżdżali na dzień, dwa. Ojciec budził mnie rano i zabierał na dalekie spacery do lasu. Zbieraliśmy grzyby, poziomki, jeżyny. Pamiętam też, że przyglądałem się jak chłopi robili gliniane naczynia. One były ładnie malowane, poza tym dobrze trzymały chłód. Mnie najbardziej interesowały jednak gwizdki z gliny. Wszystko to chłopi sprzedawali potem za grosze na jarmarku.

W Zamościu przed wojną było około 25 000 ludzi, w tym około 15 000 Żydów. Podobnie jak moja rodzina, większość Żydów zamojskich była sefardyjczykami. Do naszych czasów nie przetrwała jednak ich obyczajowość ani język. Ludzie obchodzili te same święta i ubierali się tak samo jak aszkenazyjczycy. Wszyscy mówili w jidysz. Oczywiście jidysz mówiony w Zamościu różnił się trochę od tego z Lublina czy Wilna. Miał swoje niuanse. Można więc powiedzieć, że z całej kultury sefardyjskiej nic w Zamościu nie pozostało, zachowała się jedynie pamięć o pochodzeniu naszych przodków.

W mieście była jedna wielka synagoga a poza tym były liczne sztible. Synagoga miała wystrój tradycyjny, z bimą na środku oraz zdobioną Arką [Aron ha-kodesz]. Wokół drzwi do Arki znajdowały się ornamenty. Były tam wyrzeźbione dwa lwy i dwa jelenie a wokół nich napis „Gibor keari, rac kecwi” [hebr. „silny jak lew, szybki jak jeleń”]. Mój ojciec chodził do sztibla, do synagogi rzadko. Ja chodziłem razem z nim kiedy byłem mały i jeszcze przez jakiś czas po bar micwie. Mama nie chodziła do sztibla – w ogóle kobiety nie przychodziły się modlić do sztibli, tam spotykali się mężczyźni. W ważniejsze święta i czasami w piątki chodziła do synagogi, w której było specjalnie wydzielone miejsce dla kobiet. Do synagogi przychodziliśmy też ze szkołą, na przykład kiedy odprawiano nabożeństwa za prezydenta Rzeczpospolitej.

Wśród Żydów zamojskich poza kupcami byli także rzemieślnicy różnego rodzaju. Byli stolarze, blacharze, kowale, cieśle, malarze, kamasznicy, szewcy. Byli też biedni nosiwodzi. (tak, bo nie było wtedy bieżącej wody w domach). Więc oni nosili tą wodę ze studni, która stała na rynku; najbardziej cieszyli się, jeśli ktoś robił pranie, bo wtedy potrzebowano więcej wody i zarobek był większy. Pamiętam jeszcze, że w zamożniejszych domach były służące – też Żydówki. To były młode dziewczyny z okolicznych miasteczek. Zbierały zarobione pieniądze na posag. Zdarzało się i tak, że którejś nie udało się wyjść za mąż; wtedy z zaoszczędzonych pieniędzy fundowały Torę dla synagogi.

W Zamościu mieszkali ludzie o różnych poglądach: byli i syjoniści i bundowcy. Byli także komuniści. Ludzie zamożni i inteligencja byli najczęściej syjonistami. Komuniści mieli wielu zwolenników wśród ludzi biednych. To wynikało z tego, że oni mieli sprawną propagandę [egalitarna idea komunizmu przyciągała ludzi ubogich w ogóle, nie tylko ze względu na propagandę]. Komuniści mówili o tym, że wszyscy będą mieli pracę i będą równi między sobą, nie obrażali Żydów.

Oczywiście w Zamościu byli również chasydzi. Pamiętam, jak zaprosili do siebie cadyka, żeby zamieszkał z nimi. Najpierw była długa wymiana korespondencji. Zdaje się, że on pochodził z Góry Kalwarii. Cadyk przyjechał do Zamościa pociągiem. Na stacji czekały na niego tłumy. Byli tam nie tylko chasydzi, lecz również inni Żydzi a nawet Polacy. Ja pobiegłem tam razem z grupą moich kolegów. To było wielkie wydarzenie w Zamościu. Wielu ludzi przyszło z ciekawości – zobaczyć, jak to będzie wyglądało.

Chasydzi wynajęli wszystkie dorożki w mieście. W pierwszej, najładniejszej, zaprzężonej w białe konie posadzili cadyka. Zawieźli go do domu przy ulicy Lubelskie Przedmieście, który uprzednio przygotowali dla niego. Wzdłuż całej drogi były rozciągnięte kolorowe lampki. Mniej więcej 100 metrów przed domem chasydzi wyprzęgli konie i sami pociągnęli dorożkę. Potem zjeżdżali się do niego w piątki i soboty po błogosławieństwo. Pamiętam to, bo często chodziliśmy tam i zaglądaliśmy przez szybę. Widziałem, jak cadyk brał chałę błogosławił ją i potem drobił na kawałki i jego wyznawcy brali to, bo to było takie poświęcone. Widziałem, jak tańczyli i cieszyli się – tak modlili się do Pana Boga.

Niecodzienne wydarzenia, jak przyjazd cadyka, były atrakcją dla mieszkańców takiego miasta jak nasze. Ludzie chętnie przychodzili, żeby popatrzeć na niezwykłe rzeczy. Kiedyś rozeszła się wiadomość, że w pobliskiej wsi jest lunatyk. Ja wtedy tam nie poszedłem, bo byłem za mały, ale mnóstwo ludzi się zebrało żeby go zobaczyć. Była letnia, księżycowa noc, wszyscy stali na ulicy i uciszali się wzajemnie, żeby tylko go nie zbudzić kiedy z wyciągniętymi rękami chodził po dachach domów.

Mieszkaliśmy przy samym rynku. Nasza rodzina była średniozamożna - nie można powiedzieć, że byliśmy bogaczami, ale nie można powiedzieć także, że cierpieliśmy głód. Mieszkaliśmy w kamienicy, której okna naszego mieszkania wychodziły na rynek. Cały rynek w Zamościu otoczony jest podcieniami, więc w czasie deszczu można go obejść dookoła bez parasola. Na parterze naszego domu mieściła się żydowska piekarnia. W kuchni stał piec chlebowy, w którym piekło się chałę i różne ciasta: z serem, z makiem, z miodem, pierniki, no i oczywiście zwykły chleb. Pamiętam, że był taki okres, kiedy trudno było dostać mąkę, ale nam posyłał ją stryj, który w Grabowcu miał młyny.

Mieliśmy też służącą, młodą dziewczynę, Żydówkę. Pochodziła z biednej rodziny z jakiegoś małego miasteczka. Ona gotowała i sprzątała. Pracowała i jednocześnie uczyła się jak prowadzić dom, bo u siebie w miasteczku to nawet nie miałaby z czego gotować. Chodziła też do rabina pytać, czy na przykład dana kura jest koszerna, czy nie; mama nie miała na to czasu.

W pokoju stał piec kaflowy. W zimowe wieczory graliśmy w loteryjkę. To była taka gra: rzucaliśmy kostką i zależnie od wyniku kładliśmy numery na specjalnych kartonach. Grało się też w domino i w szachy. Ojciec grywał u znajomych w karty. Mieszkanie oświetlane było przy pomocy lamp naftowych. Później w latach 20. XX wieku pojawiła się elektryczność. To było w 1926 lub 1927 roku. Pamiętam ten dzień, w którym u nas pojawiło się światło elektryczne – jak nagle wszystko się rozjaśniło!

Kiedy zbliżał się piątkowy wieczór po ulicach chodzili szamesi z kołatkami w ręku i krzyczeli: „Zamykać! Zamykać te sklepy, szabas nadchodzi!”. Mężczyźni czyścili sobie buty, dziewczyny myły włosy. Nie było wtedy szamponu, więc brały sobie jakąś naftę, a często myły głowy czymś w rodzaju barszczu. To był jakiś wywar z buraków, ale nie wiem, z czego dokładnie się to robiło. W każdym razie mówiło się na to „barszcz”.

W szabas wszystko musiało wyglądać ładnie. Wieczorem mężczyźni udawali się na modlitwę a w domu gospodyni modliła się i zapalała świece. Potem następował posiłek: obowiązkowo kołacz, chałka i ryba faszerowana. Te kołacze były robione z drożdżowego ciasta. Splatało się je z 12 wałeczków, które symbolizowały 12 plemion Izraela. Chała to była taka wysoka bułka. Potem leżały obok siebie – kołacz i chała. A tego smaku ryby faszerowanej to już się dzisiaj nie spotyka. Nawet w Izraelu robią jakieś takie rybne kulki, ale to już nie jest to samo. U nas zazwyczaj używano do tego dania karpia. Ci, których nie stać było na karpia przyrządzali gefilte fysz z małych rybek. Karpia kroiło się na dzwonka, wycinało mięso z wewnątrz, które następnie mieliło się z bułką, z jajkiem, pieprzem i solą do smaku a następnie takim farszem wypełniało się z powrotem rybę. Nie jestem w stanie dokładnie powiedzieć jak się przyrządzało tą rybę, bo ja nigdy tego nie robiłem - ja tylko ją jadłem.

Przed Paschą organizowało się pomoc dla biednych. Zgłaszali się ochotnicy, którzy dostawali mąkę, wodę i zagniatali ciasto na macę. Wtedy wypiekało się mace okrągłe – nie tak jak dzisiaj prostokątne. Potem rozdawano je ubogim.

Pascha była jednym z najbardziej uroczystych świąt. Cała rodzina zbierała się razem przy stole, na którym były piękne naczynia i wyszywane kolorowymi nićmi „przegródki” na macę – każda dla kogoś innego: jedna dla Izraelitów, jedna dla Lewitów, a jedna dla Kapłanów [od redakcji: na talerzu sederowym znajdowały się trzy kawałki macy, które czasem umieszczane były w specjalnie przygotowanej na tą okazję torbie z trzema „przegródkami”]. Byłem najmłodszy w rodzinie, więc to ja zadawałem cztery pytania, a ojciec – jako głowa rodziny -odpowiadał. Były różne ciasta i wino. Mówiło się też: „Kto pragnie przyjść i być gościem naszym niech wejdzie, niech przyjdzie”. Wielu gości przychodziło do nas na święto. Ja sam, później kiedy byłem w wojsku, również byłem zapraszany na Paschę przez różne rodziny. Zawsze przygotowany był kielich dla proroka Eliasza. Otwierało się drzwi i czekało aż przyjdzie. Pytaliśmy rodziców, dlaczego nie widać, żeby w kielichu dla proroka ubywało wino. – Bo on upił tylko troszeczkę – odpowiadali.

Obchodziło się także i pozostałe święta: Jom Kipur, Rosz ha-Szana i inne. Na Purim odczytywało się w synagodze Megilę [Megillat Ester]. My dzieci mieliśmy specjalne grzechotki i na słowo „Haman” krzyczeliśmy i robiliśmy wielki hałas. W końcu dorośli zaczynali krzyczeć na nas, żebyśmy już przestali, a my nie chcieliśmy i taka to była zabawa. Były też przedstawienia purimowe. Król Achaszwer siedział na tronie w papierowej koronie na głowie, przychodził do niego minister i coś mu tam meldował. Potem pojawiała się piękna Ester i mówiła: „Dlaczego chcesz wymordować mój lud?”. Król zmieniał zdanie, a na koniec była taka scena, że Haman już leży w ziemi, a na jego miejsce jedzie Mordechaj na koniu. W Purim przyjęło się jeść takie trójkątne ciastka z makiem; a trójkątne dlatego, że miały przypominać czapkę, którą nosił Haman. Te ciastka nazywały się humentaszn.

Świętowaliśmy też Chanukę na pamiątkę wydarzenia, które miało miejsce w Jerozolimie. Podczas oblężenia miasta obawiano się, że zabraknie oliwy do podtrzymania w świątyni wiecznego płomienia, ale jednak jakoś jej wystarczyło do końca. My też mieliśmy w domu taką menorę na oliwę [od redakcji: rozmówca najprawdopodobniej miał na myśli hanukiję].

O stosunkach polsko-żydowskich należy powiedzieć, że układały się różnie. To bardzo złożony problem. Na przykład Jan Zamojski sam zaprosił Ormian i Żydów do Zamościa [sprowadził ich w XVI wieku]. Nie było to oczywiście bezinteresowne działanie – dzięki nowym przybyszom w mieście rozwinął się przemysł i handel. Żydzi pożyczali królom pieniądze. Były też sławne rodziny, jak na przykład Kronenbergowie, którzy stworzyli kolej warszawsko-moskiewską. Pod koniec XIX wieku w Rosji pojawiły się insynuacje, jakoby Żydzi wykorzystują krew do wyrobu macy i tak dalej [oskarżenie o mordy rytualne]. W latach międzywojennych z jednej strony mieliśmy endeków, z drugiej natomiast trzeba pamiętać, że Polska miała problemy gospodarcze. Żydzi doświadczyli wówczas wielu trudów, w szczególności ci religijni, co wiązało się na przykład z kwestią uboju rytualnego. Niby chodziło o ochronę zwierząt.

Trzeba także powiedzieć, że w całej tej sprawie niemało zawinił kościół katolicki. Znamy historię: inkwizycja – palenie Żydów i czarownic... Kościół nie starał się dążyć do pojednania. Zresztą może było mu to potrzebne, żeby utrzymać wiarę. Mówiono, że Żydzi zamordowali Jezusa i muszą za to odpokutować. Dopiero teraz papież zmienił podejście do Żydów i szuka pojednania, ale i tak są to tylko powierzchowne działania. Z drugiej strony trzeba dodać, że Żydzi zawsze trzymali się niejako w odosobnieniu, tworzyli własne getta [od redakcji: w zasadzie to w czasach średniowiecza Żydzi zmuszani byli przez ludność nie-żydowską do przeniesienia się do gett – specjalnie wydzielonych dla Żydów dzielnic, często otoczonych murami. Z drugiej strony należy dodać, że pod wieloma względami taki rodzaj „osadnictwa” sprzyjał żydowskim interesom]. Dopiero przed wojną zaczęło się to zmieniać. Mieliśmy sławnych pisarzy żydowskiego pochodzenia tworzących po polsku – Tuwima, Brzechwę, Leśmiana. Młodzi ludzie uważali, że sytuacja musi ulec zmianie, że trzeba dążyć do wspólnego zbliżenia.

Jeżeli o mnie chodzi to miałem dwóch polskich kolegów. Oni byli bardzo mili, spędzaliśmy razem dużo czasu. Wspólnie chodziliśmy nad rzekę i na rowery. Pamiętam, że do szkoły chodziły także dzieci okolicznych właścicieli ziemskich. Oni uważali się za lepszych od innych. Jeden z nich podjeżdżał przed szkołę powozem, a stangret, mimo że starszy od niego, schodził z kozła, zdejmował czapkę i mu się kłaniał. Pamiętam, jak pewnego razu na lekcji rysunków jeden z tamtych chłopaków zaczął się skarżyć: „Panie profesorze, bo od niego śmierdzi czosnkiem!”. Nauczyciel nie skarcił go, tylko zwrócił się do wskazanego żydowskiego chłopca mówiąc: „Słuchaj, następnym razem postaraj się nie jeść czosnku przed przyjściem do szkoły”. Nic nie pomagało kiedy tamten mówił, że przecież nie jadł żadnego czosnku. Można więc powiedzieć, że różnie to bywało. Ja miałem grono kolegów, znajomych zarówno wśród Żydów jak i Polaków. Byliśmy dobrymi uczniami, trzymaliśmy się razem. Z drugiej jednak strony w szkole panował antysemityzm.

Moi rodzice również utrzymywali kontakty z Polakami. W naszym sklepie głównie kupowali Polacy, stałe klientki często przychodziły i opowiadały o swoich sprawach; do sklepu zachodziła też właścicielka naszej kamienicy – pani Namysłowska. Przychodziła opowiadać, że musi córkę wydać za mąż, ale że to duże wydatki i tak dalej.

Kiedy skończyłem gimnazjum moja siostra Margolia namówiła mnie, żebym przyjechał uczyć się do Warszawy. Mieszkała tam już kilka lat, pracowała jako nauczycielka, więc mogła mnie utrzymywać. Przyjechałem do Warszawy w 1933 roku i zamieszkałem u siostry. Zacząłem się uczyć w Państwowej Szkole Budownictwa. Po skończeniu tej szkoły można było od razu wstąpić na drugi rok Politechniki Warszawskiej.

W roku 1937 zostałem powołany do wojska. Wielu Żydów unikało wtedy służby, ale ja poszedłem. Mój ojciec też sobie tego życzył. Mówił, że nauczę się walczyć i że to może mi się przydać później w Palestynie. Służyłem we Włodzimierzu Wołyńskim, w 23 pułku piechoty. Potem przeniesiono mnie do Pogórska pod Baranowiczami. Tam budowano poligon, a ja miałem wykształcenie budowlane. Stawialiśmy drewniane baraki dla żołnierzy i pomieszczenia gospodarcze. W tej okolicy było bardzo dużo wilków. Pamiętam, jak pewnego razu nasz kucharz poszedł do miasta po mięso. Tereny były bagniste, trzeba było chodzić po specjalnych drewnianych kładkach. Kiedy wracał usłyszał, że wilki się zbliżają - kucharz ocalał, ale nasze mięso przepadło.

Po wyjściu z wojska w 1938 roku wróciłem do Warszawy. Mieszkałem wtedy w wynajętym pokoju. Chciałem zacząć pracować, żeby nie być już na utrzymaniu siostry ani rodziców. Miałem też plany związane z dalszą nauką na Politechnice. Zacząłem pracować w dwóch firmach budowlanych, jedną z nich prowadził Halber a drugą Krajterkraft. Obydwie firmy były żydowskie. Dostawaliśmy zlecenia na projekty kamienic czynszowych. Ja przygotowywałem te projekty, wprowadzałem poprawki. Od czasu do czasu wykonywałem także zlecenia od architekta Goldszmita. Tak pracowałem aż do wojny.

W tym czasie obracałem się w dość mocno lewicującym środowisku. Byliśmy rozczarowani sytuacją w Polsce. Ja na przykład mogłem pracować tylko w żydowskich firmach. Na uniwersytetach wprowadzane były ograniczenia. Byliśmy naiwni. Wydawało nam się, że wystarczy zmienić ustrój, żeby zmienić tą sytuację. Wszystko to wiązało się jeszcze z buntem przeciwko religii. Ja nie należałem do żadnej partii. Najczęściej moi znajomi należeli do Organizacji Młodzieży Socjalistycznej „Życie” albo do Komunistycznego Związku Młodzieży.

Lata wojny

Kiedy wybuchła wojna miałem bilet mobilizacyjny wyznaczony na siódmy dzień. Jednak zanim zdążyłem się zgłosić, wojsko już zostało rozbite. Nie było jednostek, do których moglibyśmy się dostać. Skierowano nas na wschód. Szedłem wraz z grupą kolegów z wojska w tłumie ludzi, którzy uciekali przed Niemcami. Ludzie w pośpiechu zabierali ze sobą co im wpadło w ręce. Potem widząc, że nie mają siły nieść tego wszystkiego, porzucali różne rzeczy jak ubrania czy buty – pełno tego leżało w rowach.

Kiedy przekroczyliśmy rzekę Bug zaczęliśmy spotykać Ukraińców – uzbrojonych, na koniach. Zatrzymywali nas, chociaż byliśmy w cywilnych ubraniach. W końcu trafiliśmy do Kamienia Koszyrskiego, a stamtąd po kilku dniach wyruszyłem do Kowla. Liczyłem na to, że spotkam tam rodziców i siostrę, bo w Kowlu mieszkała siostra mojego ojca, ciotka Lea. Cała ta droga zajęła mi ponad tydzień – miałem do pokonania kilkaset kilometrów [w rzeczywistości Kamień Koszyrski znajduje się zaledwie 100 km od Kowla]. Było nas w sumie kilku, spaliśmy gdzie się dało. W wioskach było dużo opuszczonych budynków, bo ludzie bojąc się uciekali z domów. Czasem udało nam się złapać jakąś zabłąkaną kurę, znaleźć garnek i rozpalić ogień. Chcieliśmy tę kurę ugotować, ale byliśmy tak głodni, że najczęściej zjadaliśmy ją od razu zanim kura zdążyła się ugotować.

Moje przewidywania spełniły się i ku mojej radości zastałem najbliższych w Kowlu. Okazało się, że kiedy wybuchła wojna rodzice kupili dosyć duży wóz, załadowali na niego cześć towaru ze sklepu i oczywiście własne bagaże i pojechali na wschód, do ciotki Lei. Margolia przyjechała razem z nimi, ponieważ w dniu wybuchu wojny była jeszcze w Zamościu, gdzie spędzała swoje wakacje. Potem w Kowlu żyli z tego, że wyprzedawali towar ze sklepu. Udało im się nawet wynająć mieszkanie.

Jeżeli o mnie chodzi to zaraz po przyjeździe do Kowla zobaczyłem ogłoszenie, że poszukują chętnych do robót budowlanych w garnizonie, który Rosjanie przejęli po Polakach. Zgłosiłem się i dostałem tam pracę. Odpowiedzialny byłem za prace remontowe. Jako osoba zatrudniona w radzieckim garnizonie dostałem od urzędu miasta przydział na kawalerkę. Zakwaterowali mnie w prywatnej kamienicy. Pamiętam, że płaciłem właścicielowi jakiś czynsz. Dzięki pracy w tym garnizonie mogłem nawet trochę pomagać rodzicom, bo stamtąd zawsze udawało się wynieść trochę węgla czy drewna na opał.

Gdy Niemcy zbliżali się do Kowla, na stacje zaczęły przyjeżdżać pociągi ewakuacyjne. Ludzie tłumnie wyruszali na wschód. Udałem się do moich rodziców i Margolii i próbowałem ich przekonać, że powinniśmy uciekać wszyscy razem, lecz oni nie chcieli tak po prostu porzucić całego swojego dobytku. Nie mieli pojęcia, co może się wydarzyć. Rodzice byli starsi i Margolia chciała zostać razem nimi. Przekonali mnie, że nic się nie stanie, jeśli pakowanie potrwa kilka dni. Byłem młodszy. Przeczuwałem, że coś się wydarzy. Postanowiłem wyruszyć wcześniej, wierzyłem jednak, że zdążą i wkrótce się spotkamy. Niestety nie udało im się.

Nigdy nie dowiedziałem się, co dokładnie się z nimi stało. Nigdy nie spotkałem nikogo, kto opowiedziałby mi, jaki los ich spotkał. Najprawdopodobniej byli w getcie w Kowlu, gdzie zostali zastrzeleni oraz pochowani w masowym grobie w lasach na przedmieściach Kowla. Po wojnie próbowałem znaleźć jakieś informacje o nich. Liczyłem na to, że może skontaktują się ze mną. Ale nic takiego się nie stało. Wróciłem do Kowla dwa lata temu, mając nadzieję na odnalezienie jakiejś wskazówki. Odwiedziłem masowy grób – wszystko, co tam zastałem to niewielki pomnik. Nie znalazłem żadnych informacji. Na żydowskim cmentarzu w Warszawie, na ulicy Okopowej, jest cała ściana upamiętniająca ludzi, którzy zginęli podczas wojny. Umieściłem tam tablicę pamiątkową z imionami osób z mojej rodziny.

W każdym razie trafiłem do pociągu ewakuacyjnego. Jechaliśmy na południowy wschód, wkrótce zaczęły się naloty niemieckie. Zostałem ranny, kiedy bombardowali pociąg. Trafiłem do jakiegoś wojskowego samochodu, do jakiegoś szpitala. Ponieważ nikt nie miał czasu się mną zająć, w ranę wdała się gangrena i w końcu amputowali mi część ręki. Potem wyruszyłem w dalszą drogę, w nieznane; znowu jechały pociągi. Dotarłem w ten sposób do Władykaukazu. Piękne miejsce u stóp gór. Prowadziła tam prosta droga, na horyzoncie której widoczne były ogromne góry, ze szczytami spowitymi we mgle.

We Władykaukazie zgłosiłem się do magistratu, żeby dali mi pracę. Przyjechałem bez niczego - nie miałem co jeść ani gdzie mieszkać. Praca dała mi szansę na przydział mieszkania, racji żywnościowych, no i jakieś pieniądze. Zostałem zatrudniony w Dyrekcji Kolei. Znowu nadzorowałem prace budowlane. Często byłem wysyłany z pracy na delegacje; byłem na przykład w Groznem w Czeczeni, w Baku w Azerbejdżanie. Wiele się wtedy naoglądałem. Pamiętam różne sceny z tamtych miejsc – muzułmanina, który zrobił awanturę na targu, bo sprzedawca położył mu mięso baranie na tej samej szali, na której przed chwilą ważył wieprzowinę. Pamiętam też, że na targu sprzedawali niedźwiedzie łapy, bo tam w górach było dużo niedźwiedzi. Albo jak kiedyś przywiozłem z delegacji olbrzymiego arbuza. Był tak wielki, że ledwie mogłem go utrzymać, no i oczywiście ten arbuz rozbił się w ostatniej chwili, kiedy wchodziłem do domu.

Miałem tam dwóch kolegów, jeden z nich – Latyszew był Rosjaninem, a drugi – Zinenko Ukraińcem. Kiedy zorientowali się, że na nich nie doniosę, zaczęli mi opowiadać o tym, co dzieje się w Związku Radzieckim, o tym, co Stalin robi z ludźmi [podczas tak zwanego Wielkiego Terroru]. Zarabiałem marnie, 350 rubli miesięcznie – tyle kosztował kilogram mięsa. Była też stołówka, w której podawali coś w rodzaju kaszy, którą polewano syntetycznym olejem. Codziennie serwowali to samo. W tym okresie bardzo schudłem, często chodziłem głodny.

Front się zbliżał i Niemcy podeszli pod Rostów nad Donem. Wtedy dyrekcja zarządziła ewakuację wszystkich pracowników razem z rodzinami. Wsiedliśmy do pociągu i rozpoczęliśmy podróż donikąd, która trwała następne osiem miesięcy. Kierowaliśmy się na południe. Czasem pociąg stawał na kilka godzin, a potem ruszał dalej. Wychodziłem wtedy kupić coś do jedzenia, popatrzeć na morze. Stać mnie jeszcze było, żeby kupić u miejscowych coś pożywnego do jedzenia. Kupowałem też chleb, który wcale nie przypominał chleba – to była taka papka z ziemniaków. Nawet próbowałem to dopiekać, ale w dalszym ciągu nie smakowało to jak chleb. Pewnej nocy położyłem się spać na górnym łóżku [w przedziale sypialnianym] bo tam było lepsze powietrze. W nocy zaczęło się bombardowanie, obudziłem się i myśląc, że jestem na dole zsunąłem się z łóżka. To był dosyć poważny upadek.

Dyrekcja Kolei starała się cały czas panować nad swoim obszarem. Z tego pociągu utrzymywaliśmy łączność z całym rejonem – kierowaliśmy pociągi towarowe na front i tak dalej. W końcu Niemcy wycofali się i wróciliśmy do Władykaukazu.

W 1943 roku moi przyjaciele z Warszawy dowiedzieli się gdzie jestem i przysłali mi list, zapraszając mnie do Baszkirii, gdzie wówczas przebywali. Tam było sporo Polaków [w zasadzie polskich Żydów], zostało powołane nawet Towarzystwo Patriotów Polskich co dawało jakąś szansę, że będzie można wrócić; postarałem się więc, żeby pozwolono mi tam wyjechać. Musiałem w tym celu trochę nakłamać w dokumentach. Napisałem, że przyjaciele są moją rodziną więc pomogą mi się utrzymać w Baszkirii, gdzie będę miał też pracę. Z dyrektorem Kolei byłem w dobrych układach, więc on też wydał mi pozwolenie na wyjazd. Było w tym wszystkim trochę ryzyka, bo nad całą procedurą czuwało NKWD, ale udało się. Znowu jechałem pociągami towarowymi, tym razem na Ural.

Towarzystwo Patriotów Polskich w przeważającej części składało się z Żydów. W Baszkirii spotkałem inżyniera Słobodkina, architekta z Warszawy, oraz innych znajomych. Zostałem kierownikiem produkcji w warsztatach wytwórczych Towarzystwa Patriotów Polskich. Szyliśmy ubrania oraz robiliśmy buty. Przez jakiś czas mieszkałem u jednej z rodzin, potem miałem własny pokój. Tam był bardzo ostry klimat. Nosiliśmy filcowe buty. Czasem nadchodził buran, burza śnieżna, podczas której nie można było wyjść z domu, bo można było zamarznąć – coś jak ściana lodu i śniegu leciała na człowieka.

Przez cały ten czas, odkąd wyjechałem z Kowla, nie miałem żadnych informacji o tym, co się stało z moją rodziną. Nie wiedziałem też co się dzieje na zachodzie. Korespondencja zza granicy nie dochodziła, nie spotkałem też nikogo, kto by mi przekazał jakieś wiadomości. Dopiero pod koniec 1944 roku można było wysyłać listy. Napisałem więc do sióstr w Izraelu, gdzie jestem i co się ze mną dzieje. Liczyłem na to, że i rodzice do nich napisali. Od sióstr dostałem jednak tylko paczkę pełną mydła. To był dobry pomysł, bo sprzedałem to mydło i dzięki temu miałem na jakiś czas pieniądze. Niestety nadal jednak nie miałem żadnych wiadomości.

Pod koniec wojny zaczęły dochodzić do nas wieści z Polski. Niektórzy wyjeżdżali. Kiedy wracali, pytaliśmy ich – „No jak tam jest z chlebem, jaki jest przydział?”. Mówili, że nie ma przydziałów, że towary leżą w sklepie na półkach i można brać, ile kto chce, że nawet ciastka tam są. Ale my już na tyle przyzwyczailiśmy się do tamtej rzeczywistości, że nie chcieliśmy im wierzyć, nie mogliśmy sobie tego wyobrazić. Wyjechaliśmy stamtąd jesienią 1945 roku. Po paru tygodniach spędzonych w pociągach towarowych przyjechałem w końcu do Lublina.

Lata powojenne

W Lublinie nie spotkałem nikogo z mojej rodziny. Później dowiedziałem się, że przeżył Awigdor (syn wujka) i jego dwie siostry. Zaraz po wojnie wyjechali do Izraela. Potem przeprowadzili się do Kanady, skąd kuzynki wyjechały do Stanów Zjednoczonych, do Bostonu. Jakiś czas temu urwał się z nimi kontakt.

Po powrocie ze Związku Radzieckiego zacząłem pracować w szkole żydowskiej przy Komitecie Żydowskim. Uczyłem języka polskiego. To była niewielka szkoła, było w niej tylko około 30 uczniów. Pamiętam, że mieliśmy takiego żydowskiego chłopca, którego matka odebrała z klasztoru. Problem polegał na tym, że chłopiec był bardzo mały, miał kilka lat, więc przywiązał się bardzo do tych sióstr w klasztorze, zapominając zupełnie o mamie. Wszyscy starliśmy się jakoś pocieszyć tę kobietę, ale ona ciągle płakała i tuliła swojego synka.

Pod koniec roku szkolnego w 1947 roku wyjechałem do Warszawy. Tutaj spotkałem swojego przyjaciela Weinera, który przyjechał z Paryża, inżyniera Słobodkina, z którym byliśmy razem w Baszkirii i wielu innych. Pracowałem w Centralnym Komitecie Żydowskim na stanowisku technika budowlanego. Pierwszy dom, który odbudowałem znajdował się na Pradze [dzielnicy Warszawy]. To był pożydowski dom, więc kiedy skończyliśmy prace zamieszkały w nim żydowskie rodziny. Później część lokatorów wyjechała z kraju a część wyprowadziła się. Odbudowałem także kamienicę przy ulicy Jagiellońskiej 28. To było również zlecenie CKŻP. W tej kamienicy na parterze znajdował się sklep, w którym sprzedawano koszerne mięso. Nie pamiętam, kiedy został zamknięty.

Na początku lat 50. XX wieku zostałem członkiem spółdzielni „Budometal”. W 1955 roku poszedłem na kurs inżynierski i uzyskałem dyplom na Politechnice Warszawskiej. W pracy wszyscy wiedzieli, że jestem Żydem. Zaczęły się sugestie, żebym zmienił imię. Wielu zmieniało nawet nazwiska, ale ja nie chciałem, więc przynajmniej zmieniłem to imię. Jeszcze przed wojną wołali na mnie Mieczysław, Mietek więc tak już zostało - imię Mordechaj wykreśliłem z dokumentów.

Nadal wykonywałem prace zlecane mi przez instytucje żydowskie, tyle że były one organizowane przez spółdzielnię. Tak było najłatwiej. Wielokrotnie remontowałem elewację synagogi Nożyków. To były zlecenia Gminy, fundusze na ten cel pochodziły z pomocy zagranicznej. O ile dobrze pamiętam – z Jointu. Zaraz po wojnie zbudowaliśmy też w tej synagodze wytwórnię macy. Urządziliśmy ją na babińcu, ustawiliśmy maszyny do mieszania ciasta i piece elektryczne i tam się piekło macę na Pesach. Wytwórnia macy funkcjonowała tam kilka lat. Potem zaczęli przysyłać nam macę z zagranicy. Wyremontowałem również budynek gminy żydowskiej na ulicy Twardej 6. W latach 50. XX wieku prowadziliśmy także na zlecenie Gminy prace porządkowe na cmentarzu żydowskim. W czasie wojny cmentarz ten został zdewastowany. Aleje były zasypane ziemią, pomniki poprzewracane. Uprzątnęliśmy więc główną alejkę. Odłamki macew wmurowaliśmy w specjalną ścianę. Kilka lat później dobudowaliśmy również przy wejściu pomieszczenia gospodarcze.

W latach 50. i 60. XX wieku było jeszcze wiele ludzi religijnych. Właściwie było trochę jak przed wojną – byli bundowcy i syjoniści. Była też spora grupa działaczy komunistycznych. Przez Joint przychodziła dosyć duża pomoc amerykańska. Były też żydowskie zakłady: „Solidarność”, gdzie uczono różnych zawodów, a Słobodkin – ten, z którym byłem w Baszkirii - prowadził ORT. Gdyby nie 1946 rok, pogrom w Kielcach, a potem Gomułka, który powiedział, że obywatele Polski nie mogą mieć dwóch ojczyzn, to pewnie tak dużo ludzi by nie wyjechało.

Na początku lat 50. XX wieku poznałem Izabelę, moją przyszłą żonę. Ona pracowała wówczas w związkach zawodowych, jako księgowa. Jej ojciec, Wacław Tłuchowski, walczył w Powstaniu Warszawskim i nigdy nie powrócił do domu. Ma nawet pomnik postawiony na cmentarzu na Powązkach. Izabela jest Polką, więc uczyła się w katolickiej szkole. Pobraliśmy się i w 1955 roku urodził nam się syn. Daliśmy mu na imię Eligiusz, ponieważ przypomina imię mojego ojca – Eliasz; czasy, w których się urodził nie sprzyjały nadawaniu typowo żydowskich imion.

Eligiusz ukończył z wyróżnieniem fizykę na Uniwersytecie Warszawskim. Zrobił też doktorat i habilitację. Teraz pracuje na różnych uniwersytetach. Obecnie przebywa na Uniwersytecie w Yale. Jest tam członkiem zespołu badawczego zajmującego się problemami fizyki teoretycznej. Czym jest dla niego tradycja żydowska? Eligiusz utrzymuje kontakty ze swoją rodziną w Izraelu. W Stanach chodzi na spotkania żydowskie. Interesuje się tradycją żydowską. Jest agnostykiem.

Izabela pochodzi z katolickiej rodziny, ale do kościoła nie chodzi i mam wrażenie, że ma do tego wszystkiego negatywny stosunek. W każdym razie nie jest praktykująca. Oczywiście nigdy jej nie zabraniałem kultywować religii. Ja z kolei do synagogi zawszę chodzę w Jom Kipur, kiedy odmawiana jest modlitwa za zmarłych. A poza tym to do synagogi nie chodzę. W domu nie obchodzimy właściwie żadnych świąt. W te żydowskie chodzę na te uroczystości, które organizowane są przez głównie przez Towarzystwo Społeczno-Kulturalne Żydów.

Izrael? Żydzi od wieków marzyli, żeby powrócić do Izraela. Każdego roku podczas święta Paschy życzyli sobie: „Ba-szana ha-ba be-Jeruszalajim”. Przez setki lat nie było to możliwe – Turcja, Arabowie, protektorat brytyjski [Mandat Brytyjski]. Wychowałem się w syjonistycznej rodzinie; moi rodzice również pragnęli, aby powstało państwo żydowskie.

Wiele razy myślałem o przeprowadzeniu się do Izraela. Zawsze jednak były różne przeszkody, które mi to uniemożliwiały. Przed wojną najpierw chciałem skończyć szkołę, potem zostałem powołany do wojska. Później, kiedy pierwszy raz byłem w Izraelu, w 1956 roku, miałem już nawet zapewnioną pracę. Jednak tu, w Polsce, moja żona miała zobowiązania – musiała opiekować się swoją matką.

Pamiętam swój pierwszy pobyt w Izraelu. Miałem duże trudności z otrzymaniem pozwolenia na wyjazd, ale w końcu się udało. Kiedy nasz statek dopływał do portu w Hajfie na nabrzeżu stała już cała rodzina. Przyjechałem do domu Rywy i Josifa, którzy wówczas zajmowali się hodowlą kur. Nie mieli jeszcze nawet kuchenki gazowej. Mój szwagier miał osiołka – zaprzęgał go do wozu i woził mnie, żebym mógł sobie popatrzeć na morze. Teraz, kiedy przyjeżdżamy z rodziną wszystko wygląda zupełnie inaczej. Ostatnio byłem w Izraelu w 1999 roku. Każde z nas miało osobne pokoje. W ciągu dnia kąpaliśmy się i opalaliśmy. Rano była kawa, herbatka i jeszcze mleko do tego oraz kakao. I dużo jarzyn, bo tam przez cały rok są jarzyny – nie tak jak u nas, tam jest wszystko.

Czy coś się zmieniło w Polsce po 1989 roku? No oczywiście, że się zmieniło. Teraz jest większa demokracja, wtedy byliśmy ciągle ograniczani. Jak pracowałem w tych różnych instytucjach to pamiętam jak na 1 maja trzymali nas w pochodach godzinami. Stało się i stało, tylko po to, żeby parę osób z góry mogło nas oglądać. A w ogóle to było takie nastawienie – Stalin to, Stalin tamto. Miałem zawsze krytyczny stosunek do tego, co się wówczas działo, bo słuchałem BBC. Natomiast miałem znajomych, nawet w Izraelu, którzy wpadli jakoś w te tryby komunistycznej propagandy i oni święcie wierzyli w Stalina. Nie wiem, ja nawet się dziwiłem, bo to byli ludzie na poziomie, wykształceni. Dla mnie to było niewytłumaczalne, jak oni mogli w coś takiego wierzyć.

Jeżeli chodzi o gminę warszawską i dzisiejsze środowisko żydowskie to wydaje mi się, że oni dużo robią „na siłę”. Na przykład szkoły języka jidysz. Nie uważam, żeby język żydowski miał przyszłość. Jidysz jeszcze istnieje ze względu na starszych ludzi. Ale żeby go „wskrzeszać”? Ja nie widzę takiej potrzeby. Może tylko dlatego, że w jidysz powstała wspaniała literatura autorstwa Szolema Alejchema, Pereca, An-skiego.

Tak samo jest w gminie żydowskiej. Jest trochę młodych ludzi, ale ich cała działalność opiera się, jak sądzę, na pomocy finansowej z zagranicy. Zresztą trudno się na ten temat wypowiadać. Ja nie jestem uprzedzony. Może ludzie znajdują w judaizmie jakiś sposób na swoje życie. Niedawno czytałem w gazecie artykuł o młodej dziewczynie, która skarży się, że w Polsce bardzo trudno jest kupić koszerną żywność. Nagle pojawiły się takie problemy! A tu były całe lata, kiedy nikt nie przychodził do synagogi. Ludzie wyjeżdżali do Izraela podejmując tym samym słuszną decyzję.

Nie korzystam z żadnych funduszy rekompensacyjnych, bo ja nie byłem w żadnym getcie. Ale jestem członkiem Stowarzyszenia Kombatantów Żydowskich. Wraz z innymi członkami tego stowarzyszenia trzy lata temu byliśmy w Niemczech. Zaproszono nas tam z ramienia Fundacji Kolbego [Maximilian Kolbe Werk – fundacja działająca na terenie Niemiec, której celem jest niesienie pomocy byłym więźniom obozów koncentracyjnych]. Osobiście odbieram to ze swego rodzaju zażenowaniem. Kolbe był w obozie i oddał życie za innego więźnia – to prawda, ale przed wojną był antysemitą. Wydawał nawet takie antyżydowskie broszurki. O przedwojennej działalności Kolbego w ogóle nikt nic nie wie. Życie przynosi nam różnego rodzaju niespodzianki i ludzie zmieniają także swoje poglądy, ale żeby od razu nazywać fundację jego imieniem? W każdym razie, otrzymaliśmy od nich zaproszenie po niemiecku i pojechaliśmy na spotkanie. Mieliśmy tam wizyty w różnych szkołach. Na spotkaniu było około 1000 uczniów oraz nauczyciele. Pewnego razu poproszono mnie, żebym przeczytał im coś po żydowsku, żeby mogli porównać czy ten język jest rzeczywiście podobny do języka niemieckiego. Więc im przeczytałem coś z Sutzkewera.

Obecnie należę i do Towarzystwa Społeczno-Kulturalnego Żydów i do Gminy. Należę również do Komitetu Społecznego, którego celem jest remont pawilonu w Szpitalu Wolskim [w okresie międzywojennym mieścił się tu szpital żydowski]. Chcemy tam urządzić dom dzienny dla starszych osób. Prawie codziennie odwiedzam gminę. Korzystam z tutejszej stołówki, ponieważ moja żona jest bardzo schorowana i nie ma już siły gotować. Jestem członkiem Klubu Seniora przy gminie wyznaniowej. Spotykamy się kilka razy w tygodniu. Czasem mamy prelekcje dotyczące tematyki żydowskiej, ale najczęściej po prostu opowiadamy sobie swoje losy.

Mieczyslaw Weinryb

Mieczyslaw Weinryb is 89 years old. He is a construction engineer. He was born in Zamosc, a town in southeastern Poland, but moved to Warsaw before the war.

He spent the war in the Soviet Union. He has always been a Zionist but never had the opportunity to emigrate to Israel. In the course of our conversations he often quoted long excerpts from the Bible, which he sometimes interspersed with criticism of over-orthodox religiosity. We met four times in the apartment belonging to his son, who works at Yale University.

Together we reconstructed Mr. Weinryb’s life and the history of his family, and looked at photographs, many of which survived because his sister, who emigrated to Palestine before the war, took them with her.

Family background


Growing up 


During the war


Post war


Glossary

Family background

I don’t remember my grandparents – they died before I was born. The oldest people I remember in the family were my two uncles. My mother’s brother had two daughters and a son. I don’t remember the names of my uncle or his daughters. His son was called Awigdor. He lived in Lublin. My father’s brother, Szalom Weinryb, had a son, Chaim Mojzesz, and a daughter, Ita. He was the owner of a mill in Grabowiec, which was 20 kilometers from Zamosc. The area was fertile and the grain good, so they lived a fairly plentiful life. At that time tarpaulin-covered wagons like gypsy carts ran between Zamosc and Grabowiec. They were used to transport people and goods. We traveled in such wagons to visit them.

My father also had a sister. Her name was Lea. She lived in Kovel, and her name in marriage was Rejder. Her husband was an administrator in a large mill.

My father was called Eliasz Weinryb. He was born around 1880. His family came from Zamosc. Our ancestors, who had come to Poland several centuries earlier, were Sephardi Jews. [Sephardim settled in the town in the late 16th century, since it was situated on the major trading route between Warsaw, Lublin and Lvov.] My father had a fancy goods store – sweaters, wool, muffs, gloves. Many different people came to him. I remember that in winter my father would open his shop after dusk on Saturdays. Everybody did that because the Sabbath ended early in winter. Somebody would always drop in, there was always someone who needed something, for instance leather workers, and would come in for thread. Then there were the regular customers – the wives of the officers from the local garrison.

My father was a Zionist. He even bought a little land in Israel from Keren Hayesod 1, albeit not in the best location. He dressed according to the European fashion. He didn’t wear sidelocks or a yarmulka. He always had a bristly beard. He was very good to us, very gentle. He would get irritated at times, of course. He had ample reason: there was the economic crisis – 1929 in particular was a hard year.

My father prayed at a shtibl [Yiddish for a small Hasidic prayer house] for Reformists like himself. [Editor’s note: In Zamosc there was one Jewish community organization officially recognized by the state authorities. However, Jewish religious life was divided into a number of smaller communities. In addition to Orthodox Jews there were also Hasidim 2 and Reformists. The Orthodox used the town’s only synagogue, while the Reformists and Hasidim usually prayed in separate prayer houses, shtibls.]. One day a whole group of them went to the big synagogue and the Orthodox Jews chased them away.

My father and his friends were active in the education cause. In 1921 they founded a Tarbut 3 school in Zamosc, called ‘Kadima’, which means ‘forward’ in Hebrew. [This was a private Jewish school with state recognition.] It comprised four classes. The resources for its construction came partly from their own contributions and partly from money that they collected from the residents of Zamosc. The school itself was a single-story building. Later on a Jewish grammar school was also established in Zamosc, but my father wasn’t involved in the construction of that one.

My mother’s name was Chana; she was born around 1880. She came from Lublin. Her family had lived there on a famous Jewish street – Lubartowska [a street in the heart of the pre-war Jewish quarter. It is mentioned in the reminiscences of many Lublin Jews]. Her family name was Sztern. My parents probably met through a matchmaker because my grandparents’ families were Orthodox. In fact it was very interesting to observe how everything was changing. Our household was already different, for instance in terms of marriage. Of course my parents advised my sisters what kind of husband to choose, but there was no longer any question of a shadkhan. Around the time I came of age my mother stopped wearing a wig. That doesn’t mean that she didn’t light the candles on Fridays – that would have been inadmissible. Mama helped in the shop but her main occupation was housekeeping. Like my father, my mother was a Zionist. However, she was afraid of the journey across the sea. And at that time the journey to Palestine was usually illegal, on Italian ships or via Romania. It probably would have been possible to convince her eventually, but then the war broke out and they never managed to leave.

I had three sisters, Margolia, Sara and Rywa, and one brother, Mojzesz. Margolia was the eldest. She was born in 1902. She went to the state grammar school in Zamosc, and towards the end of the 1920s she left home to study in Warsaw. There she graduated from the Free University of Poland [a private university], the faculty of natural sciences and mathematics. After that she taught in the Tarbut school on 2 Nalewki Street in Warsaw. She didn’t manage to emigrate to Palestine because the school administration was always asking her to stay on just a little longer. Margolia had the most gentle character of all my sisters. She always looked after me. The family even used to say that she never got married because she devoted too much time and attention to me. She was like a second mother to me.

My two younger sisters, Sara and Rywa, had similar lives. They both emigrated to Palestine in the 1920s. They were members of Hashomer Hatzair 4. They did hakhsharah in Zamosc. There was an agronomist there who had both a vegetable garden and large orchards, and was educated in hakhsharah, and he taught the Hashomer how to work the land.

Rywa was born in 1906. She completed six classes of the grammar school in Zamosc and was the first member of our family to emigrate to Palestine. That was about 1925. At first she worked on a private farm that belonged to some Arabs. They lived in spartan conditions there. Malaria was rife. They didn’t have houses, just shacks. Only later did they manage to form kibbutzim. Rywa went to live in the kibbutz Ein Harod.

My sister had a fiancé, as I suppose you could call him, back in Zamosc. His name was Szalom Luksemburg. He was preparing to emigrate, too, but kept putting it off, and in the end she left without him. She met her future husband in Palestine. His name was Josif Yavnai and he came from Lithuania. He had been called Slept, but when he arrived in Palestine he changed his name to a Hebrew one. He was very well read and at the same time hardworking. I remember that I used to send him books from Poland. In fact, I have to say that both my brothers-in-law were very decent people. In time Rywa and Josif became independent. They started off by breeding chickens, then they went into orchard cultivation, and eventually they bred cows. That improved their material situation immensely. They left the kibbutz and went to live in a place called Kfar Vitkin.

Sara was two years older than Rywa; she was born in 1904. She studied pedagogy and worked in orphanages in Kobryn, later near Bydgoszcz, and after that somewhere near Lodz. She left for Palestine a little later, towards the end of the 1920s. Like Rywa, Sara didn’t get married until she moved to Palestine. Her husband was called Josif as well, Josif Schifeldrin – he came from Germany. They lived in a kibbutz, Kvuzat Shiller, near Rehovot. Sara was there for 70 years. In the kibbutz she worked taking care of children. They were quite successful, they had their own house with flowers all around it. At first everyone in the kibbutz worked in agriculture. Later they opened a rubber factory, which prospered fairly well. They manufactured goods for export and even sold some of their products to Arab countries, but without any indication of the country of origin, of course.

As far as my sisters go, I have to say that they were all different types, had different characters. As I said, Margolia had the best nature. She was very dedicated. Rywa, the youngest, went through a lot before she made it to anything. When she emigrated to Palestine she had to learn to live in extremely harsh conditions. That took its toll on her character. She was hardened. She was of the opinion that you shouldn’t ask too much of life. Sara, who emigrated a few years later, didn’t experience the problems that Rywa had. She went to live in a kibbutz at once, and had a house of her own. And that in turn influenced her temperament, she had none of Rywa’s rawness.

My brother Mojzesz was born in 1909. He went to the Jewish grammar school. One day, one spring, when he was playing football with his friends, he trod on a nail. They took him to hospital to Lublin, but he died of gangrene. He was 15. Today all he would have needed is an injection, but they didn’t have penicillin back then. The anniversary of Mojzesz’ death is around Passover. I remember that every year when my father read out the story of how God punished Pharaoh with the deaths of all the firstborn sons in Egypt [Haggadah], he cried terribly. That story reminded him of the death of his firstborn son that he had taken so hard.

Growing up 

I was born on 8th February 1915 during the feast of Purim. I was named after my grandfather, who, like the hero of the Purim story [Megillat Ester], was called Mordechaj. I was the youngest in the family. In fact, you could say that I’m a child of war [World War I]. I remember how during the bombardments my mother would pick me up and we would all go down into the cellar. When I was a little older and had started playing in the street, I saw General Haller’s troops 5 enter the town and abuse the Jews. They would stop them and cut their beards off, singing, ‘Yid, give us your beardy!’ and so on. Later on Russian prisoners of war passed through Zamosc. As they were led through the town we children would run after them. They made all kinds of toys, wooden birds and things like that, and they would give them to us in return for a bread roll.

I never went to cheder to chant my Hebrew alphabet. Sometimes, out of curiosity, I would peer in through the window. The teacher there had an assistant. The children that went to cheder were three and four-year-olds, so they had to be taken to school and back. They just learnt their prayers by heart but didn’t understand a word of them. [Editor’s note: Mr. Weinryb’s parents were probably not satisfied with the traditional recitative teaching in cheders, and so they sent him to the modern Zionist school.] When I was six I started to go to the Jewish elementary school, ‘Kadima’, the one that my father had helped to establish. We learnt Hebrew there, and Polish, of course, and other subjects. I was in the first group that went all the way through that school. After that I went to the state grammar school.

I also had a tutor for religion, who came to our home to prepare me for my bar mitzvah. That is a tradition, of course. When a boy is 13 years old, he becomes a man. He is taken to the synagogue. Beforehand he learns the relevant prayers and so on. He has to be able to read a passage aloud and understand it. The same applied to me. I had a tutor who came to our home and taught me all this. My bar mitzvah was in the spring. I remember that day; the celebration took place in the big synagogue. My name was read out and I had to go up and read out a passage from the Torah. My heart beat a little louder, I was nervous whether everything would go alright, but I managed somehow. Then, during the prayers, the tefillin were put on – one case on the arm and the other on the forehead, with the Ten Commandments written inside. Well, this lasted maybe a year or two, I put them on less and less frequently, and eventually I stopped altogether. My friends stopped doing it as well.

As a present for my bar mitzvah I was given some money to buy myself something. But I couldn’t decide: a bicycle or a radio? I thought and thought, and the money was gradually frittered away on trifles and in the end I bought neither a radio nor a bicycle. And since I’m on the subject of bicycles, I should say that in Zamosc we had two Jewish cycle hire shops. Zamczer had these old clapped out things; he was a lot cheaper and that was where everybody who was just learning to ride hired bicycles. The other one, Pekler, was more expensive, but he had good bicycles.

In 1930 I went to Lublin to see the opening of the Hakhmei Lublin Yeshivah. [Editor’s note: The yeshivah was founded on the initiative of Agudat Israel; its rector and founder was M. Szapiro. It was one of the largest Talmudic academies of its time. The opening, on 24th June 1925, was a very solemn affair. In many towns special transport was put on to take people to Lublin.] I was 15 years old. My parents couldn’t take me, so they put me on the bus that went the Zamosc–Lublin route and my uncle met me at the other end. That was the first time I had ever been in a motor vehicle, I remember. It was a lorry adapted to carry people – there were benches along the sides in the trailer. The opening of the yeshivah was a very grand affair. There were large crowds of people, so actually I saw very little. Anyway, it was so long ago that I don’t remember any details.

Whenever we went away on holiday, one of my parents always stayed at home. They had to take care of the shop – the fight for customers was fierce. We usually went to Krasnobrod. That’s about 20 kilometers from Zamosc. There were wonderful woods there – not woods like there are today – it was a thick forest. The trees were so old and standing so close together that they blocked out the light. We would rent one room and a kitchen from some peasants. There were guesthouses in Krasnobrod as well, but they were for people who went there just for one or two days. My father would wake me in the morning and take me for long walks in the woods. We would pick mushrooms, wild strawberries and blackberries. I also remember that I watched the peasants making clay pots. They were painted nicely and kept things cool well. What interested me most of all, though, was the clay whistles. And the peasants sold all these things for a few pence at the market.

There were about 25,000 people in Zamosc before the war, about 15,000 of them were Jews. Like my family, most of Zamosc’s Jews descended from the Sephardim. Neither their customs nor their language have survived to our times, however. People celebrated the same festivals and dressed the same way as the Ashkenazim. Everyone spoke Yiddish. Of course, the Yiddish spoken in Zamosc differed slightly from that spoken in Lublin or Vilnius. It had its own nuances, but they were differences arising from the use of different dialects of the language. [The Yiddish spoken in the Polish lands used to have three major dialects: Galician (southern), Central (often called Polish) and Lithuanian (north-eastern).] You could say, then, that nothing of the Sephardi culture had survived in Zamosc; all that remained was the memory of the origins of our ancestors.

There was one big synagogue in town, and besides that several shtibls. The interior of the synagogue was traditional, with the bimah in the center and a decorated ark [aron kodesh, in Polish often called ark]. It had ornaments carved around the doors – two lions and two deer, and around them the inscription ‘Gibor ka-ari, ratz ka-zevi’ [Heb.: Strong as a lion, swift as a gazelle]. My father went to a shtibl, but rarely to the synagogue. I used to go with him when I was small and for a while after my bar mitzvah. Mama didn’t go to the shtibl – women didn’t go to pray at the shtibls at all; they were meeting places for men. At the more important holidays and sometimes on Fridays she would go to the synagogue, where there was a special area set aside for women. We used to go to the synagogue with school as well, for instance when services were held for the president of the Polish Republic.

In addition to merchants, the Jews of Zamosc were craftsmen of various trades. There were carpenters, metalworkers, blacksmiths, joiners, painters, leather specialists and cobblers. There were poor water carriers too. Yes, because at that time the houses didn’t have running water. So these people would bring water from the well on the market square, and they were happiest when someone was doing the washing because then more water was needed and they earned more. I also remember that there were servants – also Jewesses – in the wealthier households. These were young girls from nearby towns. They saved up their wages for their dowry. There were those who didn’t find a husband, and they would pay for a Torah for the synagogue out of the money they had saved up.

In Zamosc there were people of all different convictions, both Zionists and Bundists 6. There were communists, too. Wealthy people and the intelligentsia were usually Zionists. The communists had a lot of supporters among the poor. That was because they had effective propaganda. [The egalitarian ideal of communism naturally attracted the poor everywhere. It was not merely because of the successful propaganda.] They said that everyone would have work and be equal, and they didn’t offend the Jews.

There were Hasidim as well, of course. I remember that they invited a tzaddik to come and live among them. It started with a long exchange of letters. I think he came from Gora Kalwaria 7. He came to Zamosc by train. There were crowds waiting at the station, not just Hasidim but other Jews, too, and even Poles. I ran down there with a group of my friends. That was a big event in Zamosc. Many people went out of curiosity, to see what would happen.

The Hasidim had hired all the carriages in the town. They put the tzaddik in the first, best-looking one, drawn by white horses, and drove him to the house they had prepared for him on Lubelskie Przedmiescie Street. Colorful lamps were strung out all along the route. About 100 meters before they reached the house the Hasidim unharnessed the horses and pulled the carriage themselves. After that they would all go to the tzaddik on Fridays and Saturdays to be blessed. I remember that because we often used to go down there and peer in through the window. I saw the tzaddik take the challah, bless it and then crumble it into small pieces, which his followers took because it was blessed [shirayem]. I saw them dancing and rejoicing – that was how they prayed to the Lord.

Rare events like the arrival of the tzaddik were attractions for people who lived in a town like ours. People liked to go and see unusual things. Once, word got around that in a neighboring village there was a sleepwalker. I didn’t go, I was too small, but lots of people gathered to see him. It was a moonlit summer night, and everyone stood around in the street and hushed each other so as not to wake him as he walked along the roofs of the houses with his arms outstretched.

We lived right by the square. Our family was relatively well off; you couldn’t say that we were rich, but we didn’t go hungry. We lived in a town house and our apartment overlooked the town square. And all around the square in Zamosc are arcades, so when it was raining you could walk all the way round without an umbrella. On the ground floor of the house was a Jewish bakery. In the kitchen there was a bread oven which we used to bake challah and all kinds of cakes: cheesecake, poppy-seed cake, honey-cake, gingerbread, and regular bread, of course. I remember there was a period when flour was hard to come by, but we were sent flour by my uncle, who had mills in Grabowiec.

We had a servant too, a young girl, a Jewess. She came from a poor family in a small town. She did the cooking and the cleaning; apart from working she also learned housekeeping because back in her home town she wouldn’t even have had anything to cook. She also used to go to the rabbi to ask if a chicken was kosher, for example – Mama didn’t have time for that.

In the living room there was a tiled stove. On winter evenings we would sit and play lottery. That was a game where you threw dice and depending on the result we would put numbers on special cards. We played dominoes and chess as well. My father used to play cards at his friends’. The apartment was lit with kerosene lamps. Later on, in the 1920s, electricity was introduced. That was in 1926 or 1927. I remember the day when electric lights first appeared in our house – how everything was suddenly brighter; what a different light it was!

When Friday evening drew closer the shammash would come out into the streets with his rattle, shouting, ‘Shut up the shop! Shut up those shops, Sabbath is coming!’. The men would clean their shoes and the girls would wash their hair. They didn’t have shampoo then, so they used kerosene, and often they would wash their hair in something that looked like borscht. It was some kind of beetroot stock, but I don’t know exactly what it was made of. In any case it was known as ‘borscht’.

On Sabbath everything had to look nice. In the evening men went to pray, and at home the woman would pray and light the candles. And then the food came. There had to be cakes, challah and stuffed fish [gefilte fish]. Those cakes were made of yeast dough. They were plaited from twelve strands, which symbolized the twelve tribes of Israel. Challah was this kind of tall white bread. Then they stood side by side, the cake and the challah. [Editor’s note: In fact the ‘cakes’ that Mr. Weinryb describes were probably challah, a sweet white bread traditionally woven from twelve strands of dough to represent the twelve tribes of Israel, and the ‘tall white bread’ that he calls ‘challah’ was probably the ‘cake’ (a round yeast cake called ‘kolacz’ in Polish).] And that taste of stuffed fish you don’t find today any more. Even in Israel they make some sort of balls, but it’s not the same. In our house it was usually carp. Those who couldn’t afford it made gefilte fish with small fish. So the carp was sliced into steaks, the flesh cut out of the middle and minced with breadcrumbs, egg, pepper, and salt to taste, and then this mixture was stuffed back into the fish. How exactly it was done I can’t tell you because I didn’t make it, I only ate it.

Before Passover help was organized for the poor. Volunteers reported, and they got flour and water and kneaded this matzah. The matzot that were baked then were round – not rectangular like they are today. Then the matzot was distributed to the poor.

Passover was one of the most solemn festivals. The whole family gathered round the table; there was beautiful crockery and compartments for matzah with colored threads sewn in – each compartment stood for someone different: one for the Israelites, one for the Levites and one for the Priests. [Editor’s note: On the seder plate there were three pieces of matzah, which were sometimes placed in a bag sewn specially for the occasion, which had three compartments.] I was the youngest in the family, so I asked the four questions, and my father, the head of the family, answered. There were various cakes and wine. We also said, ‘Whoever desires to come in and be our guest, let him enter, let him come in.’ Guests were brought round. Later, when I was in the army, I was myself invited to various homes for Passover. There was a glass for the prophet Elijah. The door was opened and we waited for him to come. We would ask our parents why we couldn’t see the wine going down in the glass for the prophet. ‘Because he just sipped a little bit,’ they would answer.

And then there were the other festivals, of course – Yom Kippur, Rosh Hashanah and others. At Purim, the Megillat [Megillat Ester] was read out in the synagogue. We, children, had special twirlers and at the word ‘Haman’ we would shout and make a huge noise. In the end they would shout at us to stop, but we didn’t want to, and that was a kind of game. There were Purim plays, too. King Ahasuerus sat on a throne with a paper crown on his head, and a minister came to him and reported something or other. Then the beautiful Esther came and said, ‘Why do you want to exterminate my people?’ The king changed his mind, and at the end there was a scene where Haman is already in the ground and in his place comes Mordechai riding on a horse. At Purim it was the custom to eat these triangular little cakes with poppy-seeds – they were triangular because they were supposed to resemble the hat that Haman wore. Those cakes were called ‘humentashn’[Galician Yiddish for hamantashen].

There was Chanukkah as well, in remembrance of the time that Jerusalem was surrounded by enemies, and afterwards the eternal flame had to be lit in the temple. Well, and the oil for the menorah was going to run out, but somehow there was enough. We had a menorah that burned oil at home as well. [Editor’s note: The interviewee probably means the chanukkiyah.]

On the subject of Polish-Jewish relations it has to be said that things varied. It’s a very complex issue. For instance, Jan Zamojski invited Armenians and Jews to the town of Zamosc himself [this was back in the 16th century]. It wasn’t a disinterested move, of course – it was thanks to them that industry and trade developed. The Jews lent the kings money. There were famous families, too, such as the Kronenbergs 8, for example, who created the Warsaw-Moscow railway. In the late 19th century there were various insinuations in Russia that the Jews took blood to make matzah [the blood libel accusation] and so on. [see Partitions of Poland] 9 In the interwar years on the one hand there were the Endeks 10, but on the other hand you have to remember that Poland had economic difficulties. There were hardships for the Jews, too, especially for religious Jews, in connection with ritual slaughter, for example. On the face of it the issue was the protection of animals [see campaign against ritual slaughter] 11.

It also has to be said that the Catholic Church is to blame for a lot of it [the bad relations between Poles and Jews]. We know the history: the inquisition – the burning of Jews, of witches... The Church made no attempt at reconciliation. Perhaps it actually needed this, to sustain the faith. They said that the Jews had murdered Jesus and that they had to be punished. It’s only now that the pope has changed the approach to Jews and is seeking appeasement, but even so, it’s only on the surface. On the other hand, you have to add that the Jews always kept themselves apart, and created ghettos. [Editor’s note: In fact Jews were forced into ghettos (separate Jewish quarters, often confined by walls) by the non-Jews in medieval cities. On the other hand, in many respects such communal settlements served Jewish interests, too.] That only started to change just before the war. We had famous Jewish writers who wrote in Polish – Tuwim 12, Brzechwa 13, Lesmian 14. Young people felt that things couldn’t stand still, that it was important to seek reconciliation.

As for me, I had two Polish friends. They were very nice; we spent time together. We would go down to the river and go cycling. But I also remember that the children of local landowners went to school with us. They considered themselves above everybody else. One of them would drive up to school in a carriage, and the driver, although he was older than him, would climb down from the coachbox, take his hat off and bow to him. I remember once in a drawing class, one of them complained, ‘Sir, he stinks of garlic!’ and the teacher didn’t tell him off, but turned to the Jewish boy he had pointed at and said, ‘Listen, try not to eat garlic before you come to school.’ And it did no good him saying that he hadn’t eaten garlic.

So you could say that it varied [the relations between Poles and Jews in interwar Poland]. I had a group of friends, both Jews and Poles. We were good students and stuck together. On the other hand there was a definite anti-Semitic atmosphere at school.

My parents also had contacts with Poles. Most of the customers in our shop were Poles; the regular customers often used to come in and talk about their affairs, and the owner of our house, Mrs. Namyslowska, would come in, too. She used to come to talk about how she had to marry her daughter off, and what an expense it was and so on.

When I finished grammar school my sister Margolia persuaded me to move to Warsaw to go to school there. She had been there for a few years and was earning a living as a teacher, so she could support me. I came to Warsaw in 1933 and moved in with Margolia. I started studying at the State School of Construction. After graduation from that school you could go straight into the second year at Warsaw Polytechnic.

In 1937 I was called up. Many Jews dodged service at that time, but I went. It was what my father wanted, too. He said that I would learn to fight, and that that could prove useful later on in Palestine. I served at Wlodzimierz Wolynski, in the 23rd infantry regiment. Later I was transferred to Pogorsk near Baranowicze. They were building a range there and I had an education in construction. We put up wooden barracks for the soldiers and ancillary quarters. There were lots of wolves in that area. I remember how one time our cook went to town to buy some meat. The terrain was marshy, you had to walk on special wooden planking. When he was on his way back he heard the wolves coming. The cook survived, but our meat didn’t.

When I left the army in 1938 I went back to Warsaw. I lived in a rented room then. I wanted to start working, so as not to depend on my sister or my parents any more. I also had plans to continue my studies at the Polytechnic. I started work for two construction firms, one was run by Halber and the other by Krajterkraft. Both firms were Jewish. We were commissioned to design tenement houses. I worked up the plans and corrected them. From time to time I also took commissions from the architect Goldszmit. That was all the work I managed to do before the war.

At that time I kept fairly extreme left-wing company. We were disillusioned with the situation in Poland. For instance, I could only work in Jewish firms. There were restrictions at university [see Anti-Jewish Legislation in Poland] 15. And we were naive. We thought that by changing the political system we could also change the situation. All this was also bound up with a rebellion against religion. I didn’t belong to any party. Many of my friends belonged to the Socialist Youth Organization ‘Life’ or to the Communist Youth Association.

During the war

When the war broke out, my call-up papers were for the seventh day of war. Before I had a chance to report for service, though, the army had already been smashed. There was no unit for us to go to. We were directed east. I walked with a group of friends from the army in a crowd of people who were escaping from the Germans. In their haste people took with them whatever they had been able to lay their hands on. Then they realized that they didn’t have the strength to carry it, so they abandoned various things including clothes and shoes – heaps of them lay in ditches.

When we crossed the Bug river, we started to meet Ukrainians – armed and on horseback [see annexation of Eastern Poland] 16. They stopped us, even though we wore civilian clothes. Finally we made it to Kamien Koszurski, and from there I set out for Kovel a few days later. I hoped I would find my parents and my sister there because my Aunt Lea – my father’s sister – lived there. The whole journey took me over a week – it was several hundred kilometers. [Kamien Koszurski is actually no more than 100 km from Kovel]. There were a few of us, and we slept where we could. There were lots of abandoned houses in the villages. People were escaping; they were afraid. Sometimes we caught a stray chicken, found a pot and lit a fire. We wanted to cook the chicken, but we were so hungry that the chicken was eaten before it had a chance to go tender.

My predictions came true and to my delight I found my family in Kovel. It turned out that when the war broke out my parents had bought a fairly big cart, loaded up some of the goods from the shop and their own luggage, of course, and gone east, to Aunt Lea. Margolia had gone with them because on the day the war broke out she was still in Zamosc, where she had been spending the summer holidays. In Kovel they lived from selling the goods from the shop. They were even able to rent an apartment.

As for me, soon after I arrived in Kovel I saw a notice that they were looking for people to do construction work in a garrison left by the Poles that the Russians had taken over. I volunteered and was given the job. I was in charge of renovation work there. As a person employed in the Soviet garrison I was allocated a bachelor apartment by the municipal authorities. They billeted me in a private house. I remember that I paid the owner some rent. Thanks to the job in the garrison I was even able to help my parents a little because there was always the chance to take a bit of coal or firewood home.

When the Germans were approaching Kovel evacuation trains began to be put on at the station. People were going east in droves. I went to my parents and Margolia and tried to persuade them that we should all go together, but they didn’t want to just drop everything immediately. They had no idea what might happen. My parents were older by then, and Margolia wanted to stay with them. They talked me into believing that nothing would be lost if they spent a few days packing and so on. I was younger. I sensed that something was going to happen. I decided to leave first, but I thought they would manage to leave in time and that we would meet up. Unfortunately they didn’t make it.

I never found out what exactly happened to them. I never found anybody who could tell me what fate befell them. They were probably in Kovel ghetto, and were most likely shot and buried in the mass graves in the woods outside Kovel. After the war I tried to get news of them. I hoped that they might contact me. But nothing like that happened. I went back to Kovel two years ago thinking that I might find some clues. I went to the site of the Jewish mass graves – all that stands there today is a small monument. But I was unable to find out any details. In the Jewish cemetery on Okopowa Street in Warsaw there’s a whole wall commemorating people who were killed during the war. I put up a plaque there bearing the names of my family.

Anyway, I made it onto an evacuation train. We traveled southeast, and before long the German air attacks started. I was wounded when they bombarded the train. I was put on an army vehicle and taken to a hospital. No one had time to look after me, and I got gangrene and in the end they amputated a part of my arm. After that I set off into the unknown once more, and the trains started running again. That way I reached Vladikavkaz, a beautiful place at the foot of the mountains [the Caucasus]. It was reached by a straight road, and on the horizon there were huge mountains, with their peaks shrouded in mist.

In Vladikavkaz I reported to the town authorities for work. I had arrived there with nothing, I had nothing to eat and nowhere to live. A job gave me the chance to be allocated an apartment, food rations, and some money. I was given a job in the Directorate of Railways. I could speak Russian quite well. I had learnt it before the war, and before I went to Vladikavkaz I had lived more than a year in Kovel, which was under Soviet rule. Once again I was overseeing construction work. I was often sent on business trips; I went to Grozny, in Chechnya, for example, and to Baku in Azerbaijan. I saw a lot then. I remember various anecdotes from those places – a Muslim who made a huge fuss at a market because the trader put the mutton that he wanted to buy on the same scales that he had just used to weigh some pork. I also remember that they used to sell bears’ paws at the market because there were lots of bears in those mountains. Or the time I brought back a watermelon from a business trip. It was so huge that I could hardly carry it, and of course, at the very last minute, just as I was opening the door to my house, I dropped it and it burst.

I had two friends there, one of them, Latyshev, was a Russian, and the other, Zinenko, a Ukrainian. Once they realized that I didn’t inform on them, they started to tell me about what was happening in the Soviet Union, about what Stalin was doing to people [during the so-called Great Terror] 17. I earned a pittance – 350 rubles a month – the price of a kilo of meat. There was also a canteen, where they served something like grits with synthetic oil poured over it. It was the same thing every day. During that period I lost a lot of weight, I often went hungry.

The front was moving, the Germans had got as far as Rostov-on-Don. Then the Directorate decided to evacuate. They took all the employees and their families. We got on a train and began a journey to nowhere, which lasted for the next eight months. We were headed south. Sometimes the train would stop for several hours, and then set off again. Then I would get off and buy something to eat or look at the Caspian Sea. I could still afford to buy something nutritious from the locals. I also bought bread, which wasn’t bread at all – it was a kind of pap made of potatoes. I even tried to bake it some more, but still, like bread it didn’t taste. One night I went to bed on the top bunk [in the sleeping compartment] because the air up there was better. In the night a bombardment started, I woke up, and thinking that I was below, slid out of bed. That was quite a bad accident.

The Directorate of Railways tried to stay in control of its territory all the time. From that train we maintained communication with the whole region – we directed goods trains to the front and so on. In the end the Germans retreated and we went back to Vladikavkaz.

In 1943 my friends from Warsaw found out where I was and sent me a letter inviting me to Bashkiria, where they lived at the time. There were more Poles there [in fact Jews from Poland], there was even a Society of Polish Patriots, which said there was a chance to go back, so I got myself permission to move there. To do that I had to lie a little in the papers. I wrote that my friends were actually my family. They promised that they would support me in Bashkiria and that I would have work there. I was on good terms with the director of my company, so he issued me a permit to leave as well. It was all a bit risky because the NKVD 18 monitored the whole procedure, but it worked. Once again I traveled on goods trains, this time to the Urals.

The Society of Polish Patriots was for the most part made up of Jews from Poland. In Bashkiria I met engineer Slobodkin – an architect from Warsaw – and other people I knew. I was made director of production in the manufacturing shops owned by the Society of Polish Patriots. We sewed clothes and made shoes. For a while I lived with a family, and after that I had my own room. The climate there was very harsh. We wore felt boots. Sometimes the buran, a blizzard, would pass over, during which you couldn’t leave the house because you could freeze to death – something like a wall of ice and snow flew at you.

Ever since I had left Kovel I hadn’t had any news of what had happened to my family. I didn’t know anything of what was going on in the West, either. Correspondence from abroad didn’t get there, and I didn’t meet anyone who could give me any news. It wasn’t until the end of 1944 that we could send letters. So I wrote to Israel to my sisters – where I was and what I was doing. I was hoping that my parents had written to them, too. But all I got from my sisters was a parcel full of soap. That was a good idea, though, because I sold the soap and that got me some money to live on for a while. But I still had no news.

Towards the end of the war news started to reach us from Poland. Some people left. When they came back we asked them, ‘Well, and how is it with bread, what kind of rations?’ They said that there were no rations, that goods were in the shops on the shelves and you could take as much as you wanted, that there were even cakes there. But we had become so used to the reality of life out there by that time that we didn’t believe them, we simply couldn’t imagine it. We left in fall 1945. After a few weeks traveling in goods trains I arrived in Lublin.

Post war

I didn’t meet anyone of my family in Lublin. Later I found out that Awigdor, my uncle’s son, and his two sisters had survived. They left for Israel straight after the war. Later they moved to Canada, and then the girls went to the US, to Boston. Some time ago we lost contact with them.

After I returned from the Soviet Union I started work in the Jewish school of the Central Committee of Polish Jews 19. I taught Polish. It was a small school; there were about 30 pupils. I remember that we had a Jewish boy whose mother had taken him back from a convent [see Jewish children rescued by convents] 20. The problem was that the boy was very small, only a few years old, so he had become very attached to the nuns in the convent and had forgotten his mother. We all tried to comfort the woman somehow, but she was always crying and cuddling her son.

Towards the end of the school year, in 1947, I left for Warsaw. Here I met my friend Weiner, who had come from Paris, engineer Slobodkin, with whom I had been in Bashkiria, and others. I worked in the Central Jewish Committee [CJC] as a construction technician. The first house that I rebuilt was in Praga [a district of Warsaw]. It had been a Jewish house, and after we had finished work on it some Jewish families moved into it. Later on some of the tenants left the country and some moved out. I also worked on the rebuilding of the house on 28 Jagiellonska Street. That was another commission from the CJC. On the ground floor of that house was a shop that sold kosher meat. I can’t remember when it closed down.

At the beginning of the 1950s I became a member of the Budometal co-operative. In 1955 I went on an engineering course and received a diploma from Warsaw Polytechnic. At work everyone knew that I was Jewish, and suggestions started to be made that I change my name. Many people even changed their surnames, but I didn’t want to, so I just changed my first name. Even before the war people used to hail me Mieczyslaw, Mietek [a diminutive of Mieczyslaw], so it stuck, and I struck the name Mordechaj out of my papers.

I was still doing jobs commissioned by Jewish institutions, except that they were organized by the co-operative. It was easiest that way. I renovated the facade of the Nozyk Synagogue 21 several times. They were commissions from the community authorities, and the funds for this work came out of foreign aid, if I remember correctly, from Joint 22. Just after the war we also built a matzah production line in that synagogue. We set it up in the women’s gallery, put in machines to mix the dough and electric ovens, and that was where matzah was baked for Passover. The matzah production line in there operated for a few years. Then they started sending us matzah from abroad. I also renovated the Jewish community building on 6 Twarda Street. In the 1950s we were also commissioned by the community authorities to tidy up the Jewish cemetery. During the war the cemetery had been badly damaged. The avenues were buried in earth and the monuments overturned. So we cleaned up the main avenue. We put broken fragments of mazzevoth [tombstones] into a special wall. A few years later we also built some ancillary premises by the entrance.

In the 1950s and 1960s there were still a lot of religious people. In fact, it was a little bit like the Bundists and Zionists were before the war. There was also a fair group of communist activists. Quite a lot of American aid came in through Joint. There were the Jewish ‘Solidarnosc’ 23 works, where they taught different trades, and Slobodkin – the one I was in Bashkiria with – was the head of ORT 24. If it hadn’t been for 1946, if it hadn’t been for the Kielce Pogrom 25, and then Gomulka [see Anti-Zionist campaign in Poland] 26, who said that one person cannot have two homelands, then probably not so many people would have emigrated.

At the beginning of the 1950s I met Izabela, my wife. She worked with the trade union, she was a bookkeeper. Her father, Waclaw Tluchowski, left home to fight in the Warsaw Uprising 27 and never returned. He even has a monument in Powazkowski Cemetery [the most famous Catholic cemetery in Warsaw; many famous people are buried there]. Izabela is Polish and went to a Catholic school. We got married and in 1955 our son was born. We called him Eligiusz because it’s similar to my father’s name – Eliasz – and the times when he was born weren’t auspicious for giving Jewish names.

Eligiusz graduated from Warsaw University with a distinction in physics. He also did a doctorate and an assistant professorship. Now he works at various universities. At the moment he is at Yale University. He is a member of a research group there that works on problems of theoretical physics. What does the Jewish tradition mean to him? Eligiusz keeps in touch with his family in Israel. In the States he goes to Jewish meetings. He is interested in the Jewish tradition. He is an agnostic, though.

Izabela comes from a Catholic family but she doesn’t go to church and I have the impression that she has a negative attitude to all that. In any case, she isn’t practicing. I have never forbidden her religion, of course. I have always gone to the synagogue on Yom Kippur, when they say the prayers for the dead. But other than that I don’t go. At home we don’t really celebrate any holidays. On Jewish holidays I go to the receptions that the committees put on, mostly the Social and Cultural Society of Jews 28.

Israel? For centuries it has been the Jews’ dream to return to Israel. Every year at Passover they wished each other: ’ba-shanah ha-baa be-Yerushalayim’ [Hebrew: next year in Jerusalem]. For hundreds of years it wasn’t possible – Turkey, the Arabs, the British protectorate [British Mandate]. I grew up in a Zionist family, and my parents also strove for the establishment of a Jewish state.

I thought about moving to Israel many times. There were always various obstacles, though, that prevented me from doing so. Before the war I wanted to finish school first and then I was called up into the army. Later on, when I was in Israel for the first time – in 1956 – I even had a job lined up. But here in Poland my wife had responsibilities – she had to care for her mother.

I remember that first trip. I had a lot of trouble getting permission to go, but in the end I succeeded. When our ship sailed into the port of Haifa, the whole family was already on the quayside. I went to Rywa and Josif’s house; they bred chickens at the time. They didn’t even have a gas cooker then. My brother-in-law had a donkey, which he harnessed up to a cart and drove me around so that I could look at the sea. Now when we go over there with the family, everything is totally different. The last time I was in Israel was in 1999. We had separate rooms to ourselves. During the day we went swimming and sunbathed. In the morning there was coffee, tea, milk and cocoa. And lots of vegetables because there are vegetables all year round there – not like here – they have everything there.

Did anything change in Poland after 1989? Well, of course things changed. Now there is more democracy, then the strict discipline ground us down. When I worked in those institutions back then, I remember how they used to keep us for hours on 1st May, you stood and stood, so that a few people at the top could look at us. And altogether there was this attitude – Stalin this, Stalin that. I always had a critical attitude to what went on because I listened to the BBC and I knew what was going on. But I have friends, even in Israel, who back then somehow got drawn into those communist wheels and they truly believed in Stalin. I don’t know, I was even puzzled because they were decent people, they had a grammar-school education. For me it was inexplicable that they could believe in something like that.

As for the Warsaw community and Jewish circles today, I get the feeling that they overdo it in a lot of cases. The Yiddish school, for example – I don’t believe that the Yiddish language has a future. Yiddish is still around among older people. They were born in Europe and so on, but to revive it? I don’t even see the need. Perhaps just one thing, that wonderful literature written in Yiddish by Sholem Aleichem 29 and Peretz, An-ski 30.

It’s the same in the Jewish community. There’s a few young people, but it all comes down, I suspect, to the fact that they get financial assistance from abroad. In any case, it’s hard to say anything on that subject. I’m not prejudiced. Perhaps in the Jewish religion people do find a way to live their life. Not long ago I read an article in the newspaper about a young girl who was complaining that in Poland it’s hard to buy kosher food. Suddenly problems like that appear, and that, when there were years and years when nobody went to the synagogue here. People moved to Israel and they made the right choice.

I don’t take advantage of any re-compensation funds because I was never in any of the ghettos. I’m a member of the Association of Jewish Combatants, too. Three years ago I and some other combatants went to Germany. We were invited there by the Kolbe Foundation [Maxmilian Kolbe Werk: operates in Germany; its mission is offering aid to victims of concentration camps]. I feel a bit awkward about it. Kolbe was in a camp and he gave his life for another – that’s true, but before the war he was an anti-Semite. He even published these Jew-baiting newssheets. And they don’t know about Kolbe at all – about his pre-war activities. Life brings all sorts of surprises and people change their views, too, but to name a foundation after them just like that? Anyway, so they sent us an invitation in German and we went to meet them. We visited schools there. There were about 1,000 pupils and teachers there. One time they asked me to read something in Yiddish to them, so that they could compare if the language really is similar to German. So I read something by Sutzkever 31 .

At present I also belong to the Social and Cultural Society of Jews and to the Jewish Community organization. I also belong to a social committee whose aim is to renovate the annex in Wolski Hospital [Before the war this was a Jewish hospital, called Orthodox Hospital]. We want to make it into a home for older people. I’m at the community building almost every day. I use the canteen there. My wife is very poorly now and hasn’t got the strength to cook me dinner. I’m a member of the Jewish Community Seniors’ Club. We meet a few times a week. Sometimes we have talks on Jewish topics but often we just tell each other about our lives.

Glossary:

1 Keren Hayesod

Set up in London in 1920 by the World Zionist Organization to collect financial aid for the emigration of Jews to Palestine. The money came from contributions by Jewish communities from all over the world. The funds collected were transferred to support immigrants and the Jewish colonization of Palestine. Keren Hayesod operated in Poland from 1922-1939 and 1947-1950.

2 Hasid

The follower of the Hasidic movement, a Jewish mystic movement founded in the 18th century that reacted against Talmudic learning and maintained that God’s presence was in all of one’s surroundings and that one should serve God in one’s every deed and word. The movement provided spiritual hope and uplifted the common people. There were large branches of Hasidic movements and schools throughout Eastern Europe before World War II, each following the teachings of famous scholars and thinkers. Most had their own customs, rituals and life styles. Today there are substantial Hasidic communities in New York, London, Israel and Antwerp.

3 Tarbut

Zionist educational organization. Founded in the Soviet Union in 1917, it was soon dissolved by the Soviet authorities. It continued its activity in Central and Eastern European countries; in Poland from 1922. The language of instruction in Tarbut schools was Hebrew; the curriculum included biblical and contemporary Hebrew literature, sciences, Polish, and technical and vocational subjects.

4 Hashomer Hatzair in Poland

From 1918 Hashomer Hatzair operated throughout Poland, with its headquarters in Warsaw. It emphasized the ideological and vocational training of future settlers in Palestine and personal development in groups. Its main aim was the creation of a socialist Jewish state in Palestine. Initially it was under the influence of the Zionist Organization in Poland, of which it was an autonomous part. In the mid-1920s it broke away and joined the newly established World Scouting Union, Hashomer Hatzair. In 1931 it had 22,000 members in Poland organized in 262 ‘nests’ (Heb. ‘ken’). During the occupation it conducted clandestine operations in most ghettos. One of its members was Mordechaj Anielewicz, who led the rising in the Warsaw ghetto. After the war it operated legally in Poland as a party, part of the He Halutz. It was disbanded by the communist authorities in 1949.

5 Jozef Haller’s troops

During World War I Jozef Haller fought in Pilsudski’s legions. In 1916 he was appointed commander-in-chief of the 2nd Brigade of Polish Legions, which in February 1918 broke through the Austro-Russian front and joined up with the II Polish Corpus in Ukraine. In August 1918 Haller went to Paris. The Polish National Committee operating in France appointed him commander-in-chief of the Polish Army in France (the ‘Blue Army’). In April 1919 Gen. Haller led his troops back to Poland to take part in the fight for Poland’s sovereignty and independence. He commanded first the Galician front, then the south-western front and finally the Pomeranian front. During the Polish-Bolshevik War, in 1920, he became a member of the National Defense Council and Inspector General of the Volunteer Army and commander-in-chief of the North-Eastern front. After the war he was nominated General Inspector of Artillery. During the chaos that ensued after Poland regained its independence and in the battles over the borders in 1918-1921, the soldiers of Haller’s army were responsible for many campaigns directed against the Jews. They incited pogroms and persecution in the towns and villages they entered.

6 Bund

The short name of the General Jewish Union of Working People in Lithuania, Poland and Russia, Bund means Union in Yiddish). The Bund was a social democratic organization representing Jewish craftsmen from the Western areas of the Russian Empire. It was founded in Vilnius in 1897. In 1906 it joined the autonomous fraction of the Russian Social Democratic Working Party and took up a Menshevist position. After the Revolution of 1917 the organization split: one part was anti-Soviet power, while the other remained in the Bolsheviks’ Russian Communist Party. In 1921 the Bund dissolved itself in the USSR, but continued to exist in other countries.

7 Gora Kalwaria

Located near Warsaw, and known in Yiddish as Ger, Gora Kalwaria was the seat of the well-known dynasty of the tzaddiks. The adherents of the tzaddik of Ger were one of the most numerous and influential Hasidic groups in the Polish lands. The dynasty was founded by Meir Rotemberg Alter (1789-1866). The tzaddiks of Ger on the one hand stressed the importance of religious studies and promoted orthodox religiosity. On the other hand they were active in the political sphere. Today tzaddiks from Ger live in Israel and the US.

8 Kronenberg, Leopold (1812-1878)

Financier and industrialist. He came from a Jewish family and in 1846 was baptized a Calvinist. He was one of the richest people in the Congress Kingdom of Poland, and occupied important governmental and economic positions (he was, inter alia, a member of the Board of the Warsaw-Terespol Railway Society). He owned a bank and opened a sugar factory. He was an active philanthropist and supporter of the Jewish assimilation movement.

9 Partitions of Poland (1772-1795)

Three divisions of the Polish lands, in 1772, 1793 and 1795 by the neighboring powers: Russia, Austria and Prussia. Under the first partition Russia occupied the lands east of the Dzwina, Drua and Dnieper, a total of 92,000 km2 and a population of 1.3 million. Austria took the southern part of the Cracow and Sandomierz provinces, the Oswiecim and Zator principalities, the Ruthenian province (except for the Chelm lands) and part of the Belz province, a total of 83,000 km2 and a population of 2.6 million. Prussia annexed Warmia, the Pomerania, Malbork and Chelmno provinces (except for Gdansk and Torun) and the lands along the Notec river and Goplo lake, altogether 36,000 km2 and 580,000 souls. The second partition was carried out by Prussia and Russia. Prussia occupied the Poznan, Kalisz, Gniezno, Sieradz, Leczyca, Inowroclaw, Brzesc Kujawski and Plock provinces, the Dobrzyn lands, parts of the Rawa and Masovia provinces, and Torun and Gdansk, a total of 58,000 km2 and over a million inhabitants. Russia took the Ukrainian and Belarus lands east of the Druja-Pinsk-Zbrucz line, altogether 280,000 km2 and 3 million inhabitants. Under the third partition Russia obtained the rest of the Lithuanian, Belarus and Ukrainian lands east of the Bug and the Nemirov-Grodno line, a total area of 120,000 km2 and 1.2 million inhabitants. The Prussians took the remainder of Podlasie and Mazovia, Warsaw, and parts of Samogitia and Malopolska, 55,000 km2 and a population of 1 million. Austria annexed Cracow and the part of Malopolska between the Pilica, Vistula and Bug, and part of Podlasie and Masovia, a total surface area of 47,000 km2 and a population of 1.2 million.

10 Endeks

Name formed from the initials of a right-wing party active in Poland during the inter-war period (ND – ‘en-de’). Narodowa Demokracja [National Democracy] was founded by Roman Dmowski. Its members and supporters, known as ‘Endeks’, often held anti-Semitic views.

11 Campaign against ritual slaughter

In pre-war Poland the issue of ritual slaughter was at the heart of a deep conflict between the Jewish community and Polish nationalist groups, which in 1936-1938 attempted to outlaw or restrict the practice of ritual slaughtering in the Sejm, the Polish parliament, citing humanitarian grounds and competition for Catholic butchers.

12 Tuwim, Julian (1894-1953)

Poet and translator; wrote in Polish. He was born in Lodz into an assimilated family from Lithuania. He studied law and philosophy at Warsaw University. He was a leading representative of the Skamander group of poets. His early work combined elements of Futurism and Expressionism (e.g. Czychanie na Boga [Lying in wait for God], 1918). In the 1920s his poetry took a turn towards lyrism (e.g. Slowa we krwi [Words in blood], 1926). In the 1930s under the influence of the rise in nationalistic tendencies in Poland his work took on the form of satire and political grotesque (Bal w operze [A ball at the opera], 1936). He also published works for children. A separate area of his writings are cabarets, libretti, sketches and monologues. He spent WWII in emigration and made public appearances in which he relayed information on the fate of the Polish population of Poland and the rest of Europe. In 1944 he published an extended poem, ‘My Zydzi polscy’ [We Polish Jews], which was a manifesto of his complicated Polish-Jewish identity. After the war he returned to Poland but wrote little. He was the chairman of the Society of Friends of the Hebrew University and the Committee for Polish-Israeli Friendship.

13 Brzechwa, Jan (pen name of Wiktor Lesman) (1900-1966)

Lawyer, poet, satirist and translator. He came from Podolye [now Ukraine]. He studied medicine in Kazan and law at Warsaw University. Best known as the author of a large number of works for children. He also translated children’s literature and drama from Russian. As a lawyer his main area of interest was copyright (his work in this area was published under his real name). He wrote in Polish. Jewish issues are addressed only in a few satirical works.

14 Lesmian, Boleslaw (1877-1937)

Poet, writer and translator. He came from a family of assimilated Jewish intelligentsia. He was born in Warsaw and studied law in Kiev. He wrote in Polish and Russian. He was one of the founders of the Warsaw-based experimental Artistic Theater (1911). His works are in the fairytale convention and are inspired by oriental and Slavonic folklore. In 1912 he released his first volume of poetry (Sad rozstajny [The widespread orchard]). Only his admittance to the Polish Academy of Literature in 1933 enabled him to publish his work.

15 Anti-Jewish Legislation in Poland

After World War I nationalist groupings in Poland lobbied for the introduction of the numerus clausus (Lat. closed number – a limit on the number of people admitted to the practice of a given profession or to an institution – a university, government office or association) in relation to Jews and other ethnic minorities. The most radical groupings demanded the introduction of the numerus nullus principle, i.e. a total ban on admittance to universities and certain professions. The numerus nullus principle was violated by the Polish constitution. The battle for its introduction continued throughout the interwar period. In practice the numerus clausus was applied informally. In 1938 it was indirectly introduced at the Bar.

16 Annexation of Eastern Poland

According to a secret clause in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact defining Soviet and German territorial spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union occupied Eastern Poland in September 1939. In early November the newly annexed lands were divided up between the Ukrainian and the Belarusian Soviet Republics.

17 Great Terror (1934-1938)

During the Great Terror, or Great Purges, which included the notorious show trials of Stalin's former Bolshevik opponents in 1936-1938 and reached its peak in 1937 and 1938, millions of innocent Soviet citizens were sent off to labor camps or killed in prison. The major targets of the Great Terror were communists. Over half of the people who were arrested were members of the party at the time of their arrest. The armed forces, the Communist Party, and the government in general were purged of all allegedly dissident persons; the victims were generally sentenced to death or to long terms of hard labor. Much of the purge was carried out in secret, and only a few cases were tried in public ‘show trials’. By the time the terror subsided in 1939, Stalin had managed to bring both the Party and the public to a state of complete submission to his rule. Soviet society was so atomized and the people so fearful of reprisals that mass arrests were no longer necessary. Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union until his death in March 1953.

18 NKVD

People’s Committee of Internal Affairs; it took over from the GPU, the state security agency, in 1934.

19 Central Committee of Polish Jews

It was founded in 1944, with the aim of representing Jews in dealings with the state authorities and organizing and co-coordinating aid and community care for Holocaust survivors. Initially it operated from Lublin as part of the Polish Committee of National Liberation. The CCPJ’s activities were subsidized by the Joint, and in time began to cover all areas of the reviving Jewish life. In 1950 the CCPJ merged with the Jewish Cultural Society to form the Social and Cultural Society of Polish Jews.

20 Jewish children rescued by convents

During World War II some convent orphanages hid Jewish children; priests issued false certificates of baptism for them. The way such children were brought up varied. Usually they were taught the Catholic faith, which on the one hand was dictated by security (the children had to be able to act like Catholics), on the other hand the motive was often conviction of the need to bring them up in the Christian faith. The post-war fortunes of Jewish children saved in this way varied vastly. Some returned to Jewish families, others, consciously or not, remained in the Catholic environment.

21 Nozyk Synagogue

The only synagogue in Warsaw not destroyed during World War II or shortly afterwards. Built at the beginning of the 20th century from a foundation set up by a couple called Nozyk, it serves the Warsaw Jewish Community as a house of prayer today. The Nozyk Synagogue is near Grzybowskiego Square, where the majority of Warsaw’s Jewish organizations and institutions are situated.

22 Joint (American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee)

The Joint was formed in 1914 with the fusion of three American Jewish committees of assistance, which were alarmed by the suffering of Jews during World War I. In late 1944, the Joint entered Europe’s liberated areas and organized a massive relief operation. It provided food for Jewish survivors all over Europe, it supplied clothing, books and school supplies for children. It supported cultural amenities and brought religious supplies for the Jewish communities. The Joint also operated DP camps, in which it organized retraining programs to help people learn trades that would enable them to earn a living, while its cultural and religious activities helped re-establish Jewish life. The Joint was also closely involved in helping Jews to emigrate from Europe and from Muslim countries. The Joint was expelled from East Central Europe for decades during the Cold War and it has only come back to many of these countries after the fall of communism. Today the Joint provides social welfare programs for elderly Holocaust survivors and encourages Jewish renewal and communal development.

23 ‘Solidarnosc’ Production Co-operatives

an association established in 1946 to co-ordinate the work of production plants run by legally functioning Jewish parties. It also provided re-qualification and training for employees, including repatriates. In 1949 there were 200 Jewish co-operatives operating within the ‘Solidarnosc’ organization in Poland. They operated until 1968 (with a break from 1950-1956).

24 ORT

(Russ. – Obshchestvo Razpostranienia Truda sredi Yevreyev) Society for the Propagation of Labor among Jews. Founded in 1880 in Russia, following the Revolution of 1917 it moved to Berlin. In Poland it operated from 1921 as the Organization for the Development of Industrial, Craft and Agricultural Creativity among the Jewish Population. It provided training in non-commercial trades, chiefly crafts. ORT had a network of schools, provided advanced educational courses for adults and trained teachers. In 1950 it was accused of espionage, its board was expelled from the country and its premises were taken over by the Treasury. After 1956 its activities in Poland were resumed, but following the anti-Semitic campaign in 1968 the communist authorities once again dissolved all the Polish branches of this organization.

25 Kielce Pogrom

On 4th July 1946 the alleged kidnapping of a Polish boy led to a pogrom in which 42 people were killed and over 40 wounded. The pogrom also prompted other anti-Jewish incidents in Kielce region. These events caused mass emigrations of Jews to Israel and other countries.

26 Anti-Zionist campaign in Poland

From 1962-1967 a campaign got underway to sack Jews employed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the army and the central administration. The background to this anti-Semitic campaign was the involvement of the Socialist Bloc countries on the Arab side in the Middle East conflict, in connection with which Moscow ordered purges in state institutions. On 19th June 1967 at a trade union congress the then First Secretary of the Polish United Workers’ Party [PZPR], Wladyslaw Gomulka, accused the Jews of a lack of loyalty to the state and of publicly demonstrating their enthusiasm for Israel’s victory in the Six-Day-War. This address marked the start of purges among journalists and creative professions. Poland also severed diplomatic relations with Israel. On 8th March 1968 there was a protest at Warsaw University. The Ministry of Internal Affairs responded by launching a press campaign and organizing mass demonstrations in factories and workplaces during which ‘Zionists’ and ‘trouble-makers’ were indicted and anti-Semitic and anti-intelligentsia slogans shouted. After the events of March purges were also staged in all state institutions, from factories to universities, on criteria of nationality and race. ‘Family liability’ was also introduced (e.g. with respect to people whose spouses were Jewish). Jews were forced to emigrate. From 1968-1971 15,000-30,000 people left Poland. They were stripped of their citizenship and right of return.

27 Warsaw Uprising 1944

The term refers to the Polish uprising between 1st August and 2nd October 1944, an armed uprising orchestrated by the underground Home Army and supported by the civilian population of Warsaw. It was justified by political motives: the calculation that if the domestic arm of the Polish government in exile took possession of the city, the USSR would be forced to recognize Polish sovereignty. The Allies rebuffed requests for support for the campaign. The Polish underground state failed to achieve its aim. Losses were vast: around 20,000 insurrectionists and 200,000 civilians were killed and 70% of the city destroyed.

28 Social and Cultural Society of Polish Jews

Founded in 1950 when the Central Committee of Polish Jews merged with the Jewish Society of Culture. From 1950-1991 it was the sole body representing Jews in Poland. Its statutory aim was to develop, preserve and propagate Jewish culture. During the socialist period this aim was subordinated to communist ideology. Post-1989 most young activists gravitated towards other Jewish organizations. However, the SCSPJ continues to organize a range of cultural events and has its own magazine – The Jewish Word. It is primarily an organization of older people, however, who have been involved with it for years.

29 Sholem Aleichem (pen name of Shalom Rabinovich (1859-1916)

Yiddish author and humorist, a prolific writer of novels, stories, feuilletons, critical reviews, and poem in Yiddish, Hebrew and Russian. He also contributed regularly to Yiddish dailies and weeklies. In his writings he described the life of Jews in Russia, creating a gallery of bright characters. His creative work is an alloy of humor and lyricism, accurate psychological and details of everyday life. He founded a literary Yiddish annual called Di Yidishe Folksbibliotek (The Popular Jewish Library), with which he wanted to raise the despised Yiddish literature from its mean status and at the same time to fight authors of trash literature, who dragged Yiddish literature to the lowest popular level. The first volume was a turning point in the history of modern Yiddish literature. Sholem Aleichem died in New York in 1916. His popularity increased beyond the Yiddish-speaking public after his death. Some of his writings have been translated into most European languages and his plays and dramatic versions of his stories have been performed in many countries. The dramatic version of Tevye the Dairyman became an international hit as a musical (Fiddler on the Roof) in the 1960s.

30 An-ski, Szymon (pen name of Szlojme Zajnwel Rapaport) (1863-1920)

Writer, ethnographer, socialist activist. Born in a village near Vitebsk. In his youth he was an advocate of haskalah, but later joined the radical movement Narodnaya Vola. Under threat of arrest he left Russia in 1892 but returned there in 1905. From 1911-14 he led an ethnographic expedition researching the folklore of the Jews of Podolye and Volhynia. During the war he organized committees bringing aid to Jewish victims of the conflict and pogroms. In 1918 he became involved in organizing cultural life in Vilnius, as a co-founder of the Union of Jewish Writers and Journalists and the Jewish Ethnographic Society. Two years before his death he moved to Warsaw. He is the author of the Bund party’s anthem, ‘Di shvue’ (Yid. oath). The participation of the Bund in the Revolution of 1905 influenced An-ski’s decision to write in Yiddish. In his later work he used elements of Jewish legends collected during his ethnographic expedition and his experiences from WWI. His most famous work is The Dybbuk (which to this day remains one of the most popular Yiddish works for the stage). An-ski’s entire literary and scientific oeuvre was published in Warsaw in 1920-25 as a 15-volume edition.

31 Sutzkever, Abraham (b

1913): Poet writing in Yiddish. Born in Vilnius region, he belonged to the artistic Jung Wilne circle and was its most illustrious member. He made his literary debut in 1933. During WWII he was in the Warsaw ghetto, but escaped and joined the underground army. Subsequently moved to the USSR, but in 1946 returned to Poland. Since 1947 he has lived in Israel. He published several volumes of verse, including Di Festung (The Fortress), Yidishe Gas (Jewish Street) and In Fayer Vogn (In the Fiery Wagon).

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