Travel

Bernáth László

Bernáth László 
Bécs, Ausztria 
Az interjút készítette: Szászi Zsuzsa 
Az interjúkészítés időpontja: 2001. november 

Életrajz 

Engem Bernáth Lászlónak hívnak. Születtem Kiskőrösön [Kiskőrös járásszékhely nagyközség volt Pest-Pilis-Solt-Kiskun vm.-ben. 1910-ben 11 600 fő, az 1920-as népszámlálás szerint 12 700 főnyi lakosa volt. A lakosok a következőképpen oszlottak meg vallásfelekezet szerint: több mint háromnegyed részük – 77% – ágostai evangélikus volt (szlovákok több évszázaddal korábban végrehajtott nagyarányú betelepítése következtében), 15%-uk római katolikus, 3%-uk református és 4, ill. tíz esztendővel később 5%-uk izraelita. – A szerk.], 1925. október 21-én. Bernáth László volt Magyarországon a nevem. Ahogy megjöttem Ausztriába, itt beírták, hogy László németül Ladislaus. De Laci maradtam mindig, mert a Laci az becenév.

A Bernáth az egy magyaros név, egy nemesi név méghozzá, mert th-val van írva, azt mondták erre, hogy nemesi családból származom. Tényleg úgy volt, szól a telefon egyszer, a Dorotheum vezetője az, a Bernhard. Ő a Reisnerstrassén lakik a III. kerületben, ahol nekem az üzletem volt, gyerekruhaüzleteim voltak, csak tavaly adtam el, egyedül gyártottuk a dolgokat és exportáltuk. Akart velem beszélni, eljött hozzánk, azt mondja, „hát én elhoztam magának egy könyvet”.  

És a kezében volt egy könyv, amiben benne volt, hogy a Bernathok, azok az ősszüleink, tehát a dédszülők. A Bernathok egyik része írta a nevét th-val, és volt, aki rd-vel  írta, mint ő. Azt mondja, ő biztos benne, hogy mi rokonuk vagyunk, csak ő keresztény, én pedig zsidó vagyok.

És hogy hogyan, elmondta. Volt két testvér, az egyik szombatista volt, a másik katolikus volt. Azt mondja, a katolikus maradt a katolikus, az az én családom – mondja ő –, és a maga családja, a sabatisták, azok zsidók lettek. És ebben a könyvben benne van, hogy a Bernath sabatistákhoz Ferenc Jóska jött.

A Bernáthéknak volt Erdélyben sóbányájuk, ahova jött Ferenc József, és ők fogadták, és ott lakott náluk. És azt mondta, a Bernhard, azért vagyunk mi Bernáthok th-val, mert az egy nemesi név, és ő biztos benne, hogy mi rokonok vagyunk.

Hát nem tudhatom, mert még a dédpapám se tudta pontosan. A dédpapámat nem ismertem, még a nagypapámat sem. Ezt a Bernáthot nem ismertem [aki fogadta Ferenc Józsefet]. De állítólag onnan származunk, és a Bernáth azóta th-val van írva. Engem így hívtak mindig. A papámat is, meg az összes papírok úgy szólnak, Bernáth th-val. Bernáth Adolf. A papám is Bernáth, én László vagyok.

És a zsidó nevemet – Lipe – pedig egy rabbiról kaptam, aki az egyik legnagyobb rabbi volt Szatmáron [Az interjúalany valószínűleg a máramarosszigeti Chánánjá Jomtov Lipe (1830-as évek – 1904) rebbére gondol, aki a híres Mózes Teitelbaum, a sátoraljaújhelyi rebbe dédunokája volt. Lipe apja haláláig Técső rabbija volt. 1883-ban Máramarosszigetre költözött.

Apjához hasonlóan őt is sokan nagy tudósnak és cádiknak tartották, és sokan keresték föl tanácsért, és rebbeként is nagy szerepet játszott az országban. – A szerk.], csodákat csinált, és akkor halt meg, amikor én születtem. És a papám az ő nevét adta nekem. A vallásos zsidóság, ha ezt a szót, hogy Lipe meghallja, akkor először ráteszik a kezüket a fejükre, és csak úgy mondják ki a nevét. Mert annyira szent volt ez és olyan híres.

A Bernáth nagyszüleim, és annak a szülei is Kiskőrösön születtek. Szóval a dédszülők is. Állítólag jönni jöttek Erdélyből, valamikor réges-régen az egész öreg nagyszülők. Nem a nagypapám vagy a dédpapám, hanem azelőttiek. Azok állítólag onnan jöttek, de arról nem tudok mesét mondani. És még mindig ott vannak eltemetve a kiskőrösi temetőben. Mindenki ott van eltemetve, kivéve a szüleimet, mert azok Auschwitzba kerültek.

Az apai nagyapámat hívták Bernáth Mórnak, a feleségét Weiss Reginának. És ezek Kiskőrösön éltek, és ugyanavval foglalkoztak még, mint a szüleim. Épületanyag-, mészkereskedés, cement, borkereskedés. A Bernáth Mórt nem ismertem, azt a nagypapámat. A nagymamámat igen, nagyon idős volt már, 1936-ban halt meg.

És én akkor voltam a 12. évemben. Őrá emlékszem jól, még arra is, hogy amikor beteg volt… Még akkoriban az volt a divat, hogy akinek sok volt a vére, piócát tettek a hátára. Ott volt a pióca egy nagy üvegben, azt kivették, rátették a hátára, és az kiszívta vért.

Az édesanyám családját Jungreisnak hívták. Azok Lőrincin [Lőrinci – Nógrád vm.-ben lévő kisközség volt, 1910-ben 4000 főnyi lakossal. – A szerk.] éltek. És a nagyapámra, Jungreis Izsákra, a mamám apjára emlékszem nagyon jól, de a nagymamám szintén korán meghalt. A nagyszüleimnek voltak testvérei, de azokat sem ismertem, mert mind idősek voltak.

A nagypapám fél évet nálunk töltött Kiskőrösön, fél évet Lőrincin. A nagyszüleim idejében úgy volt, hogy az egyik testvérem ott aludt a Bernáth nagymamámnál, mert egy külön rész volt ottan bent. Ott lakott bent együtt, hogy ne legyen egyedül. És amikor ott volt Lőrinciből a nagypapám, akkor a legidősebb bátyám aludt vele egy szobában, hogy ne legyen egyedül.

Különben a kapcsolat megvolt mindig, mert nagyon szerettük a nagyszülőket is. És emlékszem még mindig, hogy a nagymamámmal minden nap együtt ebédeltünk, vacsoráztunk. Édesapámék többen voltak testvérek, az édesapám volt a legfiatalabb testvér.

És odajöttek le a többi testvérei Nagykátáról, Budapestről, [Solt]Vadkertről meglátogatni a nagymamát. És amikor Jahrzeit volt minden évben, lejöttek, és ott tartották a Jahrzeitot nálunk. A Jahrzeit azt jelenti, hogy ugyanaznap, amikor valaki meghalt, a zsidó naptár szerint minden évben mondanak kádist, az a Jahrzeit. Minden évben megemlékeztek azokról, akik meghaltak. Nagypapa volt, vagy nagymama volt, vagy testvér volt, vagy apa volt, az mindegy. És akkor összejöttek a templomban, és mondtak kádist.

A nagyszüleim vallásosak voltak, de modern vallásosok. Hordtak szakállt, de pajeszuk nem volt. De már az édesapámnak nem volt szakálla. A feleségem apjának volt például egy ilyen kecskeszakálla. Emlékszem rá. A nőknek voltak elegáns ruháik is, de azt ritkán vették föl, mert általában ilyen kartonban jártak. Mindamellett a családunk elég jómódú volt, és megengedhette volna magának, például a nagynénémnek, aki Pesten élt, annak gyönyörű, csupa hímzett csipke meg gyöngyös ruhái meg gyönyörű szép brokát dolgai voltak.

A nagyszüleim úgy ismerkedtek meg, hogy ajánlották őket egymásnak [lásd: házasságközvetítő, sádhen]. Akkoriban úgy volt, hogy ajánlások voltak, és így választottak férjet meg feleséget. De megismerték egymást, és aztán az egyik bemutatásból lett házasság, a másikból nem lett. Vidéken úgy volt, hogy a községházán csinálták meg a polgári esküvőt, és volt még ezen kívül a zsidó házasság [lásd: házasság, esküvői szertartás]. Először zsinagógában házasodnak meg, és aztán volt a polgári. Mi is úgy voltunk a feleségemmel.

Nekünk megvolt az esküvőnk augusztusban, és polgárilag csak szeptemberben, de elfelejtettünk elmenni. Üzentek értünk, hogy jöjjünk már a községházára, mert vár ránk a bíró, és akarja már csinálni az esküvőt. És mi meg már rég elfelejtettük, mert nekünk már megvolt az esküvőnk. De akkor ezt meg lehetett csinálni, a háború után, ma már nem lehet. Ma már ragaszkodnak a formalitásokhoz.

A nagyszüleimet meg a szüleimet is érdekelte a politika, de nem voltak tagjai semmiféle szervezetnek. Vidéken úgy volt, hogy amiről ott az országban hirtelen szó volt, akkor arról beszélgettek még a templomban is. Például amikor Kun Béla jött, 1919-ben, azt hiszem, akkor az ugye egy nagy dolog volt.

Emlékszem rá, hogy mondták, hogy egész idő alatt csak arról beszéltek, mert a Kun Béla az zsidó volt. Úgyhogy a politikáról mindig beszéltek, de nem volt olyan sok fogalmuk hozzá a vidékieknek, mint a nagyvárosiaknak. Pártba az ortodox zsidóság sosem tartozott. Se pártba, sem pedig a cionista egyesületekbe, nem szerették azokat. Nem is volt az úgy megszervezve, az még nem volt.

Mi Kiskőrösön éltünk, a Petőfi Sándor utca 7. szám alatt, abban az utcában, ahol Petőfi született. Ott született a harmadik házban tőlünk Petőfi Sándor.

Kiskőrösön körülbelül 1000 zsidó élt, úgy tudom, hogy 400 vagy 600 család [A népszámlálások tanúsága szerint az izraelita felekezethez tartozók száma 1000 főnél lényegesen alacsonyabb volt a 20. század első évtizedeiben: 1910-ben 464 fő (a község lakosainak 4%-a), 1920-ban 668 fő (5%) tartozott az izraelita vallásfelekezethez.

Az 1941-es népszámlálás szerint 509 fő (3,9%) zsidók száma Kiskőrösön. – A szerk.]. Pest megyében és egészen Máramarosig a zsidók általában jól éltek. Általában a főúton laktak és a jobb utcákban, nem kint. Előfordult, hogy egy-egy család kint lakott, mert nem volt annyi pénze, hogy bent lakjon. De nem volt olyan nagy az a község, Kiskőrösnek körülbelül 15 000 lakosa volt [1930-ban 13 100 fő élt Kiskőrösön. – A szerk.].

Több zsidónak is volt Kiskőrösön rengeteg földje, szőleje. Az volt sok, de nekünk nem volt szőlőnk, hanem csak egy ilyen, ahol kukorica, krumpli meg ilyesmi volt [lásd: a földművelés szerepe]. És volt egy darabig, amíg béreltünk egy szőlőrészt, ahol aztán csináltunk belőle mustot, de az nem volt sokáig. Mi főleg kereskedelemmel foglalkoztunk.

Az összes keresztényeket ismertünk, mert mihozzánk jöttek és adták el a borukat. A mamám mást se csinált, mint mérte vagy a mustot, vagy a maligánddal a bort [A maligánfok a bor alkoholtartalmának mértékegysége (Maligand francia borász neve alapján elnevezve). – A szerk.].

A maligánd az az, amivel mérik a szesz mértékét a bornak. Van egy ilyen gép, begyújtották spiritusszal alul, és fönt a higany ment, és ameddig elment, annyi maligándfok szeszfokú a bor. És mi aszerint vettük, ha nem volt, csak 9 fokos, akkor kevesebbet kaptak érte, ha volt 13,5-14 fok, akkor sokat kaptak érte.

A város közepén volt a zsidó templom és mellette a kistemplom, az volt szintén. És mellette, a háta mögött lakott a rabbi meg a kántor. Az öreg Fogler, a kántor is ott lakott [Fogler Gusztáv volt a kántor. A Centropa interjút készített Fogler Gusztáv unokájával, Faludi Józseffel. – A szerk.].

A közelben mellette, a zsinagóga körül laktunk mi. Az üzletek, rőfös meg ilyesmi a főutcán voltak. Szép üzleteik voltak a zsidóknak. Egy óriási nagy sarokházban laktunk jobboldalt a templomtól, közvetlen mellette. És a mi udvarunkban volt később a gettó, mert az egy óriási nagy udvar volt, 10 borpincénk volt az udvarban. És ott laktak azok, akik jöttek a környékből a gettóba: Fülöpszállásról, Dunakecelről [azaz: Kecelről]. Ezeket odahozták Kiskőrösre, onnan vitték őket Kecskemétre és Kecskemétről Auschwitzba.

De ez csak később volt. [Randolph L. Braham írja: „A gettóban, melyet április vége körül alakítottak ki a zsinagógában és környékén, 582 zsidó élt, beleértve a környező falvakból behozottakat” (A magyar Holocaust, II. Budapest, Gondolat, é. n. /1988/, 48. oldal.). A gettó lakosságát június 21-én áttelepítették Kecskemétre, egy, a bevagonírozás központjaként szolgáló üzemen kívüli gyárépületbe, ahonnan két transzportban deportálták az ott összegyűjtött embereket június 27-én, ill. 29-én. – A szerk.]

Kiskőrösön volt villany is. Eleinte még gáz- és petróleumlámpák voltak. De ahogy idősebb lettem egy kicsikét, akkor már volt villanytelep, és villany volt mindenütt. Telefonok voltak, nekünk is volt telefonunk meg villanyunk. Nekünk már az 1930-as években volt telefonunk, de például a Fogleréknak [a kántor] nem volt. Nekik az nem kellett.

Minden évben kétszer volt nagyvásár, és hetenként volt ilyen piaci vásár. Igen, az volt bent a Szarvas téren. Egész hétre az asszonyok mentek bevásárolni. Az édesanyám ment az egyik cselédlánnyal, az cipelte a dolgokat, vagy pedig valamelyik idősebbik fiát kiküldte, „ezt és ezt hozzál”. Voltak üzletek. Volt fűszerüzlet is, nekünk magunknak épületanyag üzletünk volt, de a legidősebbik lánytestvéremnek a papám adott egy fűszerüzletet, amikor férjhez ment, az volt a hozománya.

Volt hitközség is természetesen Kiskőrösön, minden községnek saját hitközsége volt. Az édesapám is hitközségi gabe volt, ilyen intéző. Minden hitközségben van két gabe, aki benne van a vezetőségben. Ott vannak a választásokon a hitközségben. Mert persze mindenütt vannak veszekedések. Egyik akarja ezt megválasztani, ezt a rabbit, azt a kántort, azt a sámeszt… Ilyenkor szoktak lenni a választások.

Voltak olyan zsidók is Kiskőrösön, akik nem tartottak semmit sem. Azok nem voltak olyan vallásosak. De összejöttek a templomba minden nap nagyon szép számban a vallásosabbak, akik reggel is imádkoztak, és este is imádkoztak. Az én nagyszüleim meg még a szüleim is állandóan a templomban voltak, reggel is, este is. És aztán voltak egy csomóan, akik csak szombaton imádkoztak, akkor jöttek a templomba.

Kiskőrösön kétfajta iskola volt, volt egy zsidó iskola, hédernek hívják, ott tanulnak zsidóul a kisgyerekek, már az alef-bészt, meg itt tanultunk zsidóul imádkozni meg elmondani a bróhékat. És volt egy hivatalos iskola, ahol tanultak számtantól kezdve mindent, ami létezett [azaz volt felekezeti elemi iskola is].

Ez kimondottan zsidó iskola volt, ahova csak zsidók jártak, és két tanító volt hozzá. Az első és második osztálynak volt egy tanítónője, az volt a Goldtstein, akire én emlékszem. Később, a harmadik, negyedik, ötödik és a hatodikban, majdnem a polgáriig, az volt a Menzel tanító. És mint gyerekek ott jöttünk össze, és ott futballoztunk, ott labdáztunk, ott csináltunk mindent. Meg különböző játékok léteztek, bicskával meg mit tudom én.

Én csak a hat elemibe jártam Kiskőrösön, pedig volt egy kis jesiva is, ahol a vallásosak tanultak, amit a rabbi vezetett, de nem volt híres jesiva [Kiskőrösön nem volt jesiva, hanem tanulócsoportok voltak, amelyek a jesivákhoz hasonlóan foglalkoztak az anyaggal. – A szerk.]. Mert voltak kimondottan híres, nagy jesivák, sok volt Magyarországon. Nagyon sok jó jesiva volt. Ahol én tanultam Galántán és Pápán, ott négyszázan tanultunk. 400 fiatalember, úgy mondják, hogy bóher. Galánta most Szlovákiában van [Galánta a Kisalföld északi részén, az ún.

Mátyusföldön fekvő város, járási székhely (1910-ben 3300 főnyi túlnyomóan magyar, csekély részben német és szlovák anyanyelvű lakossal), amely a trianoni szerződést követően Csehszlovákiához került (ekkoriban 3600 lakosa volt). 1938 és 1945 között ismét Magyarországhoz (Pozsony vm.) tartozott (lásd: első bécsi döntés). – A szerk.], Pápa pedig a Dunántúlon, a szülők is ott tanultak, és azoknak a szülei is, és oda küldték a gyerekeket is. Csak mindig más volt a rabbi. Más volt, aki tanította őket.

A jesivában aztán a Tórát tanulják és az egész hittant. Ugye a keresztényeknél van a Jézus, az volt 2000 évvel ezelőtt. Mi meg tanultuk visszamenőleg, ami 5000 évvel ezelőtt volt. Tehát Ádámtól kezdve, egészen a mostani, utóbbi időig. És tanultuk a magyarázatokat, az volt a nehéz. Az, aki csak eddig ment el a magyarázatba, az gyönge fejű volt, aki minél többet tanult, annál többet tudott.

Régen Kiskőrösnek a fele egy rokonság volt, mert például az egyik család elvette a másik családnak a húgát vagy az unokatestvérét, és így jöttek össze. Gottlieb, Goldberger, Jungreis, ezek mind unokatestvérek voltak. Édesapám volt néhai Bernáth Adolf, ott született Kiskőrösön 1886-ban. Édesanyám az egy Jungreis lány volt, aki Lőrinciről származott.

Ö 1891-ben született. És az ő nagynénjei már Kiskőrösön éltek, mikor ő oda férjhez ment. Mert a Goldbergerné az az ő anyjának volt a testvére, és a Gottliebné szintén az ő anyjának volt a testvére, és azok ott éltek Kiskőrösön. Úgyhogy így összejöttek a családok, és talán így hozták össze a Goldbergerék a Nellit, az anyukámat a Bernáth Adolffal.

Megismerkedtek és megesküdtek. Mert mind a kettő vallásos volt, de biztosan találkoztak. Az kellett, hogy megismerjék egymást. De olyan is volt, akik nem is ismerték egymást és összeházasodtak. De azok csak a vallásos rabbik voltak, de ők nem. Még fiatalok voltak, az édesanyám volt, azt hiszem, 17 vagy 18 éves, mikor férjhez ment. Akkoriban ez volt a divat a vallásosoknál.
Lőrincin házasodtak, talán a polgári esküvő volt Kiskőrösön.

A szüleim magyarul beszéltek, magyarok voltak. És abban a házban laktak, ahol később mi is, és ahol már a nagyszüleink is laktak. A házban nálunk volt állandóan két cselédlány, a szomszéd községből. És azonkívül a nővéreim. Mert én voltam a fiúk között a legfiatalabb. És mind segítettek, mind főztek és segítettek a takarításban meg mindenben.

Mert amikor jöttek az ünnepek, akkor nagy volt a sütés-főzés, vendéglátás. Sütés, főzés és nálunk nem volt olyan nap, hogy ne lett volna meghíva egy szegény ember az asztalhoz [A vallásos zsidóknál micvének, jócselekedetnek számított meghívni az asztalhoz egy-egy átutazót, szegény embert, koldust, snorrert. – A szerk.].

Se reggel, se este… Mindig volt valaki. Állandóan ült valaki az asztalnál, mert jöttek ilyen szegények gyűjteni, akkor adtunk egy kis pénzt, és attól függetlenül jöhettek hozzánk enni. Ha valahova mentek, akkor a Bernáthékhoz mentek. Például van valami, amit sohase fogok elfelejteni. Voltak idők, amikor nagyon rossz volt, mert jöttek az 1940-es évek.

Nagyon nehéz volt a megélhetés. Azért el kellett tartani a családot, és nemcsak a családot, hanem a családban már voltak, akik férjhez mentek, és unokák is voltak. Persze kellett azokat is segíteni. Az én édesapámnak kevés volt ezt mind eltartani, minden évben, ha jött a Jom Kipur, a hosszúnap, a böjtnap vagy a Purim, akkor szoktak adni a szegénynek.

És hát nekünk magunknak is alig volt, erre mit csinált? Átküldött engemet a szomszéd gazdaghoz egy bonnal. Az volt rajta, ennyit és ennyit kölcsönvettem, és ekkor és ekkor visszaadom. Átmentem, elhoztam a pénzt. Ő fogta, betette aztán borítékokba, és elküldette velem a kántoroknak, a rabbiknak, hogy osszam szét. És erre vett föl pénzt.

Az ünnepek nálunk gyönyörűek voltak. A hétvégét, a szombatot sábesznak hívják, és úgy készültek rá minden alkalommal, mintha most lenne csak egyszer. És minden héten volt. A nagyünnepek azok különlegesek voltak megint, ugye. Mert jöttek hozzánk vidékről kántorok.

Mert habár volt nekünk három kántorunk, nemcsak a Fogler bácsi, az öreg, hanem volt még egy Weinberger meg egy Frenkl nevezetű is. De ezeknek nem volt olyan különleges hangjuk. Hozattak, emlékszem rá, Dombrádról egy kántort, gyönyörű hangja volt neki, és hozta magával a két fiát. Azok kísérték, kórusban, nagyon szép volt. Arra fizetett is a hitközség pénzt.

Amikor volt a boldogult Jungreis nagymamám után a Jahrzeit, akkor összejöttek az összes testvérek, még Izraelből is. Volt az anyukámnak egy bátyja, a legidősebb, az kiment 1930-ban. És az hazajött csak azért, hogy ott legyen a Jahrzeitra. És összejött a család nálunk, az volt a Purim előtt való nap mindig. Arra a napra esett. Az egész család együtt volt, otthon leültünk és tartottuk úgy, ahogy előírás szerint kellett, mosdottunk, ettünk, énekeltünk, mindent. Bort ittunk.

Pészahkor, húsvétkor, amit úgy hívnak, hogy szédereste, amikor mondják a Hágádát, a má nistánát, akkor az asztalnál nem fértünk el, olyan hosszú, nagy asztal volt, hogy alig fértünk el. És az egész kisgyerekek már el is aludtak rögtön. Amikor mindenki összegyűlt, annyi ágy sem volt, úgyhogy mindenki kettesével aludt.

Akkor volt az, amikor az Eszter könyvét fölolvassák, igen, akkor az egyik nagybácsim még otthon a nőknek külön fölolvasta. A férfiak elmentek a templomba, és ott kellett felolvasni, és a nők részére az egyik nagybácsim fölolvasta az egész Eszter könyvét. Áthozta. Az olyan, mint a Tóra [Azaz tekercs formájú, mint a Tóra-tekercs; lásd: Megilá. – A szerk.]. És ő ezt tudta szintén olvasni. Úgy, mint én is tudom, pont nélkül is olvasni.

Amikor pedig az édesapám részéről volt a Jahrzeit a nagypapám után, akkor meg az ő testvérei jöttek oda. De mind jöttek oda hozzánk Kiskőrösre. Nem a kiskőrösiek mentek a többi testvérekhöz, széjjel valamihez. Ezek itt összejöttek valami tíz helyről. Kecelről, Nógrádbercelből, Egerből, Pestről. Mindenhonnan összejöttek a testvérek, és ottan akkor találkoztak.

Mi nyolcan voltunk testvérek. Volt négy fiú és négy leány. A fiúk között én voltam a legfiatalabb, és volt még egy húgom. A két legidősebbik nővérem férjhez ment. Amikor a legidősebbik nővérem 1936-ban megesküdött, az egész udvar egy sátor volt. Olyan óriási volt. Az gyönyörű volt. Jöttek a cimbalmosok, játszottak.

„Az a szép, az a szép, akinek a szeme kék”, meg ezekre emlékszem. „Szép a rózsám, nincs hibája, csak egy kicsit libegős a járása.” Ezt még akkor énekeltem…  Vagy az volt a szokás, hogy jöttek minden péntek este vacsora után a vendégek. Ettek egy kis gyümölcsöt vagy süteményt, vagy ittak valamit, és ott beszélgettek. Mindenről beszéltek, éppúgy beszéltek a politikáról, mint erről a rokonról meg arról a rokonról.

Ez ment férjhez vagy az. A szüleimnek voltak barátai is, akik ottan laktak Kiskőrösön. Például maga a hitközségi elnök is, a Schwartz Sándor, a Láng bácsi meg a Menzel tanító, voltak jó páran, akik összejöttek a templomban vagy otthon nálunk. Előfordult nálunk, mivel az én édesapámék modernek is voltak és vallásosak, hogy leültek játszani talonmáriást, akkor az volt a divat.

Az olyan mint a römi kártya, hármasban lehetett játszani meg négyesben. De péntek este ezt nem lehetett, mert pénteken, szombaton nem szabad. De amikor kiment a szombat, szombat este lehetett. Délután aludtak, aztán fölkeltek, és akkor játszottak egy kicsit. Ritkán fordult elő, hogy az én szüleim mentek volna el valahova. Az nagyon ritkán fordult elő. Ők nem utaztak el, csak néha családi látogatásra, elutaztak [Solt]Vadkertre, vagy Lőrincire, ahonnan anyukám származott, de aztán már nem tudott elmenni, amikor annyi kisgyerek volt. Akkor már nem tudott, nálunk nyolc gyerek volt.

Mi nem voltunk soha külföldön, de a pesti nagynénim – az, aki nagyon jómódú volt, az állandóan úton volt valahol. Bécsben, Semmeringen [Semmering – hegy Stájerország és Alsó-Ausztria határán, a vidék kedvelt üdülőhely volt. – A szerk.] meg Berlinben. Ott is volt házuk. Azok jobb módúak voltak, azok sokat utazgattak, meg fürdőhelyekre jártak meg mindenhová. Aztán amit mi csinálunk a feleségemmel, hogy járunk fürdőhelyekre vagy ez, az, amaz, azt ők nem csinálták. Szabadságra nem utaztak.

Kiskőrös és [Solt]Vadkert között van egy tó, amit úgy hívtak, hogy Petőfi-tó. Mink Büdös tónak hívtuk. De Petőfi-tó. És az volt, hogyha volt kedvünk, és nagyon meleg volt, mi, gyerekek oda mentünk fürdőnadrágban, és ott fürödtünk. Ebből állt az egész élményünk. Semmi más.

A nagyszüleim és a szüleim idejében nem volt még az antiszemitizmus olyan erös. De antiszemitizmus mindig volt, olyan nem létezett, hogy ne lett volna. Voltak idők, amikor jobban megvoltunk, amikor nyaliztak még a keresztények a zsidóknak. Olyan is volt. Mert hát zsidóknak adták el általában a keresztények a dolgokat. Mindent. A borukat, a gabonájukat, mindent. Aki fölvásárolta ezeket – voltak persze keresztény boltosok is –, azok nagyobb része zsidó volt. És azok vásároltak föl mindent ezektől a keresztényektől.

És később aztán már volt konkurencia. Például mi mésszel foglalkoztunk és épületanyaggal, és akkor nekem is volt konkurenciám, egy keresztény, igen, aki később egy nagy nyilas [lásd: nyilasok] lett. De a nagyszüleim és a szüleim általában próbáltak – mint minden zsidó vidéken – jóban lenni a kereszténységgel. Mert mégiscsak beszélgettek. De a háta mögött már az egyik mondta, „az a büdös zsidó”, a másik mondta, „ez a büdös gaj” [gój]. Szóval, de abban nem volt semmi sem, mert nem voltak komoly dolgok.

Aztán később voltak komolyabb dolgok, amikor jöttek a nyilasok, ugye. Amikor a gyerekek kiabálták, hogy „Ergerberger, Weissberger, minden zsidó gazember!”. Meg ilyesmiket. Ezek már csak később voltak, az 1940-es évek felé. 1935-től, 1936-tól kezdve. És akkor a kisgyerekek dobálták a köveket. Emlékszem rá, amikor kimentem az édesapámat elhozni a vasúttól, mert minden héten kétszer Pesten volt. És akkor dobálták kövekkel, és hogy engemet el ne találjanak, apám a kabátja alá vett. Hát ilyesmi volt. Ez van, és ez még a legkevesebb. Én még ebben nőttem föl, úgy lehet mondani. Mert zsidózni zsidóztak mindig. Azt hogy aztán hogyan gondolták, hogy ezt már vagy viccből csinálták, vagy pedig hogy kődobálás meg ilyesmi, meg ablakokat betörtek. Ez már a későbbi időben volt csak, 1942 után.

Én 1925. október 21-én születtem. Jártam héderbe [Solt]Vadkerten, az mellettünk van tíz kilométerre, akkor a nagynénémnél laktam [Solt]Vadkerten. Egy fél évig. És fél évig ott tanultam. És aztán hazajöttem, és utána elmentem a jesivába. Először Galántán tanultam egy évet, kétszer fél évet, a jesiva az félévenként megy. A bátyáimmal együtt voltam, akik közül nem jött egy se vissza a háborúból. Amikor a galántai jesiva megszűnt, mert a magyarok, vagy a szlovákok megszállták [Nem világos, miért hagyták el Galántát és mentek Pápára.

Galánta még Bernáth László születése előtt, a trianoni döntést követően került Csehszlovákiához, és az első bécsi döntést követően, 1938 őszén került vissza átmenetileg Magyarországhoz. – A szerk.], akkor átmentünk Pápára. És akkor ott tanultunk. Az első zsidótörvény bejött tulajdonképpen 1940-ben [1938-ban; lásd: zsidótörvények Magyarországon]. És a második zsidótörvény még csak 1942-ben jött be [1939. május 5-én lépett hatályba]. A zsidótörvények előírták, hogy ezt nem szabad egy zsidónak csinálni, vagy ilyen üzletet nem szabad csinálni. Különböző dolgok.

Ami meg volt tiltva, és azt nem csinálták. Mindegyiknek volt tartalékja, és abból éltek. Nem kellett bezárni az üzletet, csak akkor már, amikor már bejött Hitler, akkor úgyis bezárta. Akkor már vége volt. 1944. március 19-én jött be Hitler, Magyarországra. Hát akkor már kellett hordani a csillagot. Márciustól júniusig a zsidók épphogy csak éldegéltek. Ahogy tudtak, bebújva a lakásba.

És akkor elvittek bennünket. Szóval széjjel lettünk vive. 17 éves koromban vittek el már munkaszolgálatba, kaptam behívót június 6-ára Hódmezővásárhelyre. És a szülők pedig… Akkor csináltak Kiskőrösön egy gettót. [Úgy tűnik, az interjúalany emlékezetében már összecsúsznak a történtek. Amikor először behívták munkaszolgálatra, akkor 17 éves volt, ez tehát 1942-ben volt. A június 6-ára szóló behívó 1944-ben volt, amikor a gettót csinálták. – A szerk.] Még ott voltam aznap, június 6-án ott voltam, nálunk csinálták a gettót, és a mi udvarunkban voltak a legtöbben.

A vidékiek is álltak be szekerekkel, jöttek szekerekkel meg ilyenekkel. És én aznap mentem Hódmezővásárhelyre. A környékbeli községek oda lettek hozva Kiskőrösre hozzánk, mert az volt a kiskőrösi járásnak a központja. És onnan meg később [1944. június 21-én] elvittek mindenkit Kecskemétre gyűjtőtáborba. Az volt a gyűjtőtábor Auschwitzhoz. Onnan meg vitték az embereket Auschwitzba. Jöttek a vagonok, beszállni, beszállni és kész. Én bekerültem a munkatáborba Hódmezővásárhelyre. Az édesanyám átutazott Kiskőrösről Kecskemétre.

Fülöpszálláson adta fel a legutolsó lapot nekem. Valahogy ott bedobatta vagy bedobta a postaládába a vasútnál, és még azt megkaptam május elején. Azt a lapot megkaptam május [Nyilvánvalóan június elejéről van szó.] elején. Ott búcsúzott el tőlem. Hódmezővásárhelyen nem voltunk olyan sokáig, onnan átkerültünk Újszegedre, Szegedre. És ott is voltunk egy darabig, ott se voltunk túl sokáig.

Ottan pucoltuk a katonaság részére vagy a hagymát, vagy a krumplit, vagy a borsót. Onnan meg átvittek bennünket Pétfürdőre. Pétfürdő itt van, a Dunántúlon, Komáromtól nem olyan messze. Szóval ottan voltunk, azon a helyen voltunk egészen november végéig. És november végén meg fogtak bennünket, és gyalog elvittek bennünket a határig, a cseh határig. És a cseh határnál beszálltunk ilyen tehervagonokba, és megérkeztünk Dachauba [Németország], ott ki volt írva Arbeit macht frei. A munka szabaddá tesz.

Szóval ez volt tulajdonképpen 1944 végén már. Dachau volt a központ, mindenki Dachauba került. Dachauban mutatták, ez megy erre, ez megy a gázba, ez meg emide, ez megy munkába. Engemet a munkába osztottak. Ottan voltunk kábé két hétig Dachauban, és onnan meg kerültünk a környékbeli munkatáborokba.

A kemény munkatáborba, ahol nem kaptunk szinte semmit enni, és a vállunkon kellett cipelni két zsák cementet, amíg bírtuk. Ha összeestünk, akkor leöntöttek vízzel, vagy ütöttek korbáccsal. Sokan összeestek, meghaltak. Ottan már kezdődött a vég. És akkor ottan voltunk olyan lágerokban, bekerültünk a legrondább lágerba, ami létezett Németországban, Kauferingbe, ahol flekktífusz [A flekktífusz vagy kiütéses tífusz magas lázzal és fejfájással járó fertőző betegség, főleg a ruhatetvek terjesztik. – A szerk.] volt. [Kaufering 15 táborból álló táboregyüttes Kaufering falu közelében, a dachaui koncentrációs tábor altábora. A táboregyüttest 1944 júniusa és októbere között állították fel. A Kauferingbe deportált rabokat a Jagerstab program keretében fölállított föld alatti repülőgépgyárban dolgoztatták. Főleg magyar, lengyel, cseh, szlovák és román zsidók kerültek ide Auschwitzból. A rossz bánásmód, az elégtelen élelmezés, az orvosi ellátás hiánya és a nehéz munka következtében nagyon magas volt a halálozási arány, de mivel a németek az amerikai hadsereg megérkezése előtt egy héttel kiürítették a tábort, nem lehet tudni, hogy hányan haltak meg Kauferingben. – A szerk.]

Én is voltam flekktífuszos. És ottan be voltunk kerítve karanténba, nehogy elkapják azok a szegény németek esetleg a tífuszt. Mi be voltunk kerítve, de azért adtak munkát, hogy a halottakat vigyük ki a drótig, ki kellett nyitni a szájukat, kihúzni az aranyfogakat belőle, beledobálni az SS-nek a sapkájába. 

És ottan ettek nálunk emberhúst Kauferingben. Ezek még rosszabbak voltak, mint Dachau. Mühldorf volt még a legjobb, mert ott elmehettünk dolgozni. [A mühldorfi táboregyüttes a dachaui koncentrációs tábor altábora volt, amelyet 1944 közepén állított fel az SS, hogy a Messerschmitt 262 sugárhajtású harci repülőgépeket előállító föld alatti üzemébe munkaerőt biztosítson.

1944 júliusától a tábor 1945 áprilisában történő felszabadításáig több mint 8000 foglyot szállítottak ide. – A szerk.] Az Münchentől nincs messze, Dachautól sincs messze. Ottan dolgoztunk. Mühldorfban bekerültünk először egyik karanténba, aztán a másik karanténba, és ott majdnem mindenki elpusztult. Páran maradtunk. Amikor jöttek az amerikaiak, a németek keresztüllőtték a lábamat, földobtak bennünket, aki életben volt még, fiatalok voltak, öregek nem – földobtak bennünket a nyitott vagonokba. Megindították a vagont, megtöltötték olajjal, meggyújtották a legutolsó vagont, igen, és amennyien tudtunk, kiugrottunk, és ott találtak bennünket az amerikaiak. Szóval ezeken mentünk keresztül. Különböző dolgok, elmesélni is rossz.

Ez volt 1945 májusában, de én sajnos nem tudtam hazajönni, mert lövésem volt. Úgyhogy én nem tudtam menni sem, és gipszben voltam. A német le akarta venni a lábamat, az SS-orvos – mert még az orvos ott volt, az SS-kórház ott volt –, és az amerikai nem engedte. És így megmaradt a lábam. Én ott voltam egészen augusztusig, pedig májusban már otthon voltak az emberek. 3 hónapot még ott voltam. És utána mentem Kiskőrösre. Tehervagonnal mentünk egészen Pestig. Jom Kipurkor Pozsonyban voltam. Kiszálltam a vonatból, hogy nehogy utazzak Jom Kipurkor [A legnagyobb ünnepet böjttel, imádkozással és elmélkedéssel kell tölteni, ilyenkor nem szabad utazni vagy dolgozni. – A szerk.].

Pesten meg megyek az OMZSÁ-hoz, Országos Magyar Zsidó Segítő Akció, azt hiszem. Valami ilyen, ott volt a Bethlen téren. És ott jelentkezni kellett. És akinél jelentkezem, az egy kiskőrösi Schwartz lány volt. Az írta az adataimat. Oda érkeztem, és ott mondta nekem a lány, hogy nahát, mert nem ment vissza senki a faluba. Én azt hittem, ha már visszamegyek, akkor otthon találok valakit. Senki nem volt. Senki. Egy testvérem se. A legidősebbik lánytestvéreimet, akik férjhez mentek Kiskőrösön, azokat is elvitték. Az egyik elkerült Sárvárra [azaz: Sárvárra ment férjhez], a második és a legidősebbik ott volt Kiskőrösön. Azt is elvitték, két gyereke volt már. A másodiknak egy gyereke volt, azt is elvitték Auschwitzba, és nem is jöttek vissza. A legidősebbik bátyám elpusztult Oroszországban, 1942-ben, az azután való bátyám elpusztult Borban [lásd: bori rézbányák]. Bor Jugoszláviában van, ő ott pusztult el. És a többi mindegyik Auschwitzban a szüleimmel együtt. Szóval, csúnya eset, rossz róla beszélni, de hiába, ez volt.

Kiskőrösön egyedül voltam abban az óriási házban, és tönkre volt téve minden, mindent kiszakítottak, még az ablakokat is kiszakították. Még a villanyvezetéket a falból is kiszedték, meg a padlót fölszedték. Keresték, hogy nincs-e eldugva valami. És mindent, amit elástunk, amit én elástam a mamámmal meg a papámmal együtt, eldugtunk ilyen ezüst dolgokat, megtalálták, mert a földben szurkáltak. Egyetlen egy helyen találtam csak meg egy kis ékszert, briliánst vagy valami ilyesmit, de azt is az egyik ismerősöm a háború után ellopta. És csak egy szomszéd mondta, hogy az én szüleim leadtak ott két koffert, és itt van, átadta. Ruhanemű volt benne, ami nem is az enyém volt, hanem vagy a szüleimé, vagy a lánytestvéreimé. Ágyneműk. Nem is nagyon érdekelt, hanem fogtam magam és visszaadtam.

Odaültem a padlás szélire és elkezdtem sírni.

Volt nekem egy nagybátyám, ott tíz kilométerre Vadkertől, Soltvadkertől. Braunfeldnek hívták, aki szintén nem él, Izraelben meghalt. És oda mentem azokhoz. Hogy ne legyek én egyedül, és azoknak meg szüksége volt erősen rám. Mert én egy fiatal ember voltam, és tudtam mindent csinálni. Utazgattam nekik, utazgattam föl a tehervonatokkal a bort szállítottam föl nekik Pestre a vagonokba. Éjszaka vagy nappal, nem számított. Én gyerek voltam még. Hát nem voltam 20 éves. 1945-ben voltam [Solt]Vadkerten. 1945 végén rendbe jöttem egy kicsikét… Utána már szép volt. Utána szép volt, megismertem a feleségemet. Már ismertem én kislány korából is, de nem úgy. Ahol én laktam, az nem volt annyira messze őtőlük. És akkor kezdtem megérezni, hogy férfi vagyok.

A feleségemnek, született Friedmann Izabellának van egy lánytestvére, nővére, Irén, aki őnála idősebb, majdnem két évvel. 18 hónappal idősebb. És az édesapja azt akarta először, hogy azt vegyem el. Én meg mondtam, hogy vagy őt, vagy senkit. Én őt akartam elvenni. És először mi esküdtünk meg, aztán a nővére máshoz ment férjhez, egy évre rá. 20 éves még nem voltam, mikor megnősültem. Még nem voltam 20 éves, mikor megnősültem. 1946-ban esküdtünk [Tehát azért már elmúlt 20 éves, hiszen 1945 októberében született. – A szerk.].

Visszamentem, és fölépítettem a házat Kiskőrösön, egészen rendbe lett hozva. Gyönyörű, óriási lett. Kinyitottam a boltot is, a háború után az építkezési anyag príma üzlet volt. Árut megszerezni is kellett tudni, mert nem adtak könnyen, először csak borért adták, aztán csak aranyért adták. Eladtam a bort aranyért, aranyért megvettem az árut és azt adtam el [lásd: feketézés, cserekereskedelem]. De 1948 végén államosították a boltot, mert azt mondták, hogy aki elad, az a kommunistáknak az ellensége [Lásd: államosítás Magyarországon; a „fordulat éve” – 1949]. Hogy is mondták? Rendszerellenes vagy rendszeridegen. Rendszeridegen voltam, és akkor nem kaptam állást, és már két kicsi gyerekünk volt. Nem volt más módunk, el kellett Magyarországról szöknünk. Otthagytunk mindent…

Még fölmentünk Pestre, és ott voltunk egy pár hónapot, amíg elintéztük magunknak, hogy elinduljunk. Izraelbe akartunk menni. A feleségem kétszer lebukott. Úgy jött az elválasztás, amikor lebuktunk, eljutottunk Pozsonyig, átkerültünk a Dunán, és Pozsonytól kellett volna, hogy átérjünk gyalog Ausztriába. Akkor ahogy mentünk a buszhoz ottan, Petrezserka felé, igen, akkor az első buszra szállt a feleségem, lebukott, és rögtön átvitték Szombathelyre, és bezárták. A lányommal együtt, aki itt él most Bécsben, és aki a legidősebbik lányom [Edit]. Bezárták mind a kétszer Szombathelyen. És én meg egyedül voltam itt a kisgyerekkel, a 11 hónapos gyerekkel [Márta]. És a kétéves gyerek meg vele volt. És én pedig nem tudtam eljönni Bécsbe csak egyedül, de azt akartam, hogy jöjjön a feleségem is. És el akartam intézni, hogy jöjjön, de nem tudtam. Kimentem Izraelbe, hogy elintézzem, hogy tegyék rá egy csoportra. De nem, de nem tudtam, nem lehetett, gazemberek voltak ott is, mint mindenütt vannak gazemberek. És ő Pesten volt, meg börtönben, én pedig vártam rá Bécsben.

Mindamellett, hogy sajnos külön voltunk, és nem tudtunk együtt élni, persze egy férfi éli az életét. Természetes, hogy tartottam magamnak egy barátnőt. De hát 5 évig nem lehet, 5 és fél évig nem voltunk együtt. Hát nem lehet, hogy egy férfi egyedül legyen. De hát mindegy. És jó üzletet csináltam. Én voltam az, aki behoztam Ausztriába Amerikából a Wurlitzert a zenegépeket, amik álltak a kávéházakban. Ez már 1952-ben volt, általában használtat vettem, mert újakra nem volt annyi pénzem, fölállítottam 82 kávéházban. De mindig bejött a pénz, úgyhogy fölkeltettek éjszaka sokszor, hogy jöjjek kiüríteni a gépet, mert nem megy, mert tele van pénzzel.

És vártam a feleségemet, vártam és gondoltam, majd ha itt lesz, akkor együtt eldöntjük, hogy megyünk-e Izraelbe. Aztán itt maradtunk Bécsben.
 

Bence Miklós

Életrajz

Apám, Braun Zsigmond, 1877-ben Regőczén született [Regőcze: Bács-Bodrog vm., nagyközség]. Ma Rigyicának hívják, de akkor még a nagy Magyarország déli része volt.

Apám apját Braun Ignácnak hívták, de őt én nem ismertem. Annyit tudok róla, hogy két vegyeskereskedése volt. Az egyiket apám egyik idősebb, velük élő nővére, Julcsa vezette. A másikban az apjuk dolgozott meg két másik testvére, Károly és Bella. Károly elég sokat ivott, azt beszélték róla, hogy nincs minden rendben vele. Nagyon jó szíve volt, és ha valaki akkor jött be hozzá a boltba amikor egyedül volt, akkor elhalmozta mindenfélével, ajándékokat osztogatott. Mikor a nagyapám rájött, hogy mi történik a készletével, amíg ő áruért van, kapával jól elverte és elüldözte Károlyt, és az egyik üzletét bezárta. Azt tartotta meg, amivel egy épületben volt a házuk. Az apám hat éves volt, amikor zsiványok kiásták a bolt alatt a földet, és szekéren mindent elhurcoltak. Reggelre üres volt a bolt. Ekkor költözött a család Szegedre.

Apám anyja [szül. Kestenbaum ?] háromszor ment férjhez, de mindig özvegy maradt. Mindig özvegy emberhez ment férjhez. Minden házasságból sok gyerek volt, egyszer megpróbáltam összeszámolni őket, de ötvennél abbahagytam. Apám egész családjából személyesen szinte senkit sem ismertem, Bécsben éltek, meg szétszórva a világban féltestvérek, negyedtestvérek. Az apámat egy idegen dajka nevelte, mert az anyja nagyon beteg volt. Apámnak csak egy édestestvére volt. Braun Jankának hívták, és színház- és filmőrült volt. Többek között volt a Lukács Pál komornája, jegyszedő, öltöztető, mindegy, mi, csak színház legyen, és a színpad közelében legyen.

Apám Szegeden érettségizett [miután odaköltözött a család]. Kereskedelmibe járt [1895-ben vezették be a kereskedelmi iskolák bizonyos típusában az „érettségi vizsgálatot”. Bence Miklós apja az iskolatípus megszületésével egy időpontban végzett ilyen iskolában. Részletesebben lásd: kereskedelmi iskolák. – A szerk.]. Könyvelő volt, és később hites könyvvizsgáló lett, amikor 50 éves korában elvégezte az egyetemen ezt a szakot. Ez egyébként akkor indult, ő az első évfolyamra járt. Volt egy szabadalma is. Az apám tisztviselő volt, könyvelő, különböző nagyobb cégeknél. Rendszerint eljött a helyről, mert nem volt hajlandó hamisan könyvelni, amit megkívántak a főnökök, úgyhogy perbe került evvel-avval. Mindig vesztett persze, mert a pénz nem nála volt. Úgyhogy elég nehezen tudta ő a családot eltartani.

Az apám nagy rajztehetség volt. 15 éves korában rajzolt olyan képeket, amelyeket a mai napig őrzünk. Kölcsönkért színházjegyeket, lemásolta őket, és azokkal ment a színházba. Nagyon művelt ember volt, beszélt nyelveket, németül, franciául, angolul, olaszul is valamelyest. Németül anyanyelvi szinten beszéltünk, ő angolul is nagyon jól beszélt. Otthon sokat rajzolt, de nem tudom pontosan, miket, mert ugye elajándékozta, meg a bátyáméknál volt néhány nagyon szép képe, de az elveszett. Elég sokat festett. És gyönyörű verseket írt. Van is egy verseskötete. Ezenkívül még megmaradt a hadinaplója. Sakkozott is, voltak állandó sakkpartnerei, szenvedélyes sakkozó volt. Minket is megtanított sakkozni. 1903-ban nősült Szegeden.

Anyám Törökkanizsán született 1882-ben [Törökkanizsa Torontál vm.-i nagyközség, vegyes – magyar és szerb – lakossággal. – A szerk.]. Buchhalter Arankának hívták. A neve könyvelőt jelent. De az az érdekesség, hogy a családjának egészen az én apámmal való házasságig nem volt semmi köze a könyveléshez. Kisiparos családból származott, az apja, Buchhalter Lipót szabó volt. Az anyám nem tanult ki semmilyen szakmát, otthon, a háztartásban volt végig, három gyereket nevelt föl.

Az [anyai] nagymamám, Buchhalter Lipótné [szül. Schiller Berta] nálunk lakott. Nem tudom, honnan jött vagy mit csinált, csak arra emlékszem, hogy mióta az eszemet tudom, nálunk lakott és özvegy volt. 1931-ben halt meg, amikor én épp készültem az érettségire. A nagymama, krumplisrétest csinált, ha jóban akart velem lenni, vagy ha meg akart főzni engem. Voltak családi vacsorák, születésnapok, ünnepek is. Ennyit tudok róla és még azt, hogy elég vallásos volt. Szerintem ő péntekenként is imádkozott, és gyertyát is gyújtott.

Apám bevonult 1914-ben Erdélybe, 53 hónapot volt ott. Százados volt, az erdélyi körvasút parancsnoka. Úgyhogy az egész család együtt volt Brassóban, mert akkor a tisztek megtehették, hogy magukkal vitték az egész háztartást. Az első háborút végigcsinálta a három gyerekkel, praktikusan egyedül. Utána Gyimesbükkre mentünk – az volt a régi román határ –, onnan már menekültünk a betöréskor [lásd: a román hadsereg behatolása Magyarországra]. Ott mindenféle zűrök voltak, robbantás meg egyebek. Én a lövészárkokra emlékszem csak, mert elég kicsiny voltam még. 1917-ben jöttünk vissza Pestre. Apámnak volt hat háborús kitüntetése, meg két sebesülése is volt. Úgyhogy egy ideig kapott is 30 forint rokkantellátási díjat, plusz egy forint gyermektartást. Az volt az én havi zsebpénzem.

Amikor visszajöttünk Pestre, a Lónyai utcában, egy nagy bérházban laktunk egészen 1935-ig. A Lónyai utcai lakás udvarra néző kétszobás lakás volt. A ház maga kétudvaros volt, mi a második udvar negyedik emeletén laktunk. Egyik szobában a gyerekek, másikban a felnőttek. Egy ideig volt háztartási alkalmazottunk. Érdekes, egy ilyen nagy bérházban laktunk, mondom, a Lónyai utcában, ahol vegyes társaság volt. A zsidóknál voltak háztartási alkalmazottak, akik azonos anyagi szinten voltak. Keresztényeknél nem volt. Érdekes.

A testvéreimmel jól megvoltunk. Attól függetlenül, hogy nagy volt a korkülönbség, mert én lemaradtam. Ők ugye már mit tudom én, szórakoztak, moziba jártak, amikor én még éppen csak írni tanultam. 10 évvel vagyok fiatalabb náluk.

Klári nővérem 1908-ban született Szegeden. Elég fiatalon megházasodott. Fiuméba ment férjhez [férj: Francesco Nauman], egy gyereke lett. A férje kereskedő volt, egy gazdag kereskedőcsalád leszármazottja. Nagy üzletük volt, azt hiszem, a ház is az övék volt. Bőrdíszműtárgyakat, ruhákat meg mindenféle kiegészítőket árultak. Elég vallásosak voltak. 1943-ban, amikor a németek megszállták Olaszországot, elvitték őket a gyerekkel együtt. 1944-ben itt vitték őket keresztül Magyarországon, de nem tudtunk találkozni, én sem voltam már akkor itthon. Semmit sem tudunk róluk. Valószínűleg Auschwitzban ölték meg őket, ha egyáltalán eljutottak odáig.

A bátyánkat Ferencnek hívták, 1906-ban született Budapesten. Akkor a szüleim egy rövid ideig itt éltek, Pesten. Textilügynök volt. Megházasodott, de nem lett gyereke. Egy nála jóval idősebb asszonyt vett el, Goldner Vilmát, aki 1900-ban született; de szerintem jól megvoltak. Rengeteget utazott, sohasem szeretett egyhelyben maradni. Azért maradt a háború után is utazó, hogy mindig mehessen. Az országban sokfele voltak sakkpartnerei. Szenvedélyes sakkos volt, apánktól tanulta a különböző taktikákat. Verset is írt, azt hiszem, ebben is tehetséges volt. A háború után Zuglóban laktak, sokat járt hozzánk, játszott a gyerekekkel. Nagyon idősen halt meg, 1998-ban, 92 évesen.

A Lónyai utcai elemibe jártam négy évig, aztán a négy reált [azaz valószínűleg a reáliskola alsó négy osztályát, lásd: gimnázium és egyéb középiskolák] a Horánszky utcában végeztem, és onnan átmentem a Vas utcai felső kereskedelmibe [lásd: kereskedelmi iskolák]. Ott érettségiztem 1931-ben.

A barátok között sohasem volt szempont, hogy zsidó legyen, a feleséggel kapcsolatban sem volt ilyen előírás. De az iskolán keresztül meg az adott korszakban érezni kellett. Ebből következett, hogy az ember nem mert akárkikkel barátkozni, nemhogy családot alapítani. Az elemiben még nem volt, ha jól emlékszem, semmi különös. Elviselhető, szolid antiszemitizmus volt csak.

Nehezen érettségiztem le, mert volt néhányunknak igazgatói megrovásunk, és majdnem kicsaptak. Olyan hatan-heten, akik a magyar szocialista nem tudom, micsodába jártunk – az illegális kommunisták is odajártak ilyen összejövetelekre.. Az egyik osztálytársam volt a főkolompos. A nagybácsija szocdem képviselő volt, az apja pedig a „Népszavá”-nál dolgozott, úgyhogy oda húzott, és minket is beszervezett. Ebben a társaságban, azt hiszem, egy kivétellel mindannyian zsidók voltunk. Bent nyalókáztunk választások előtt [plakátokat ragasztottak tiltott helyekre], és volt privát szemináriumunk is. Itt inkább irodalmi dolgokról volt szó, egy-egy könyv ismertetése, egy-egy író munkásságának áttekintése. Volt egy-két igen tehetséges gyerek is köztünk, akik nagy része elpusztult a háborúban. Az iskolában ez valahogy kitudódott, és akkor hatunkat vagy hetünket raportra vittek az igazgatóhoz. Meg volt leventeoktatás, és mi eldobáltuk a fegyvereket, renitensek voltunk. Valahogy megúsztuk egy igazgatói megrovással, úgyhogy hagytak minket leérettségizni.

Mindig sokat sportoltam. Úsztam meg pingpongoztam, jól korcsolyáztam, és még vízilabdáztam is. Jártam a Komjádi bácsihoz, akinek sokat köszönhet az úszósport. Örökké vizes volt, mindig ott ugrált. Komi bácsi áldott jó ember volt. Aztán apánkkal jártunk kirándulni. Hajnalban fölkeltünk kettőkor vagy háromkor, és elindultunk – mert nem szálltunk villamosra vagy ilyenre, 9–10 órára már a hegyek között voltunk. Meg a csillaghegyi strandra is jártunk nyaranta.

Nyaralni nem nagyon jártunk. Hat éves voltam, amikor apámnak valakivel találkozója volt valahol Balatonon, nem tudom, Bogláron vagy Lellén, s akkor utánaszaladtam, hogy vigyen el, mert még nem láttam a Balatont. Nahát így akkor láttam először a Balatont. Én sokat eveztem, volt egy közös használt csónakunk, azzal a Dunára jártunk evezni. Volt olyan, hogy sátorral mentünk hosszabb időre.

Apám nem volt kimondottan vallásos ember, de mindent megmutatott, és mindent megtartott. Tehát a Pészah volt tartva. Volt például szédereste, amit az apám vezényelt le. Olvastuk a Haggadát, és én mondtam a má nistánát, és kerestem az áfikóment. Nem emlékeszem, hogy külön étkészlet lett volna Pészahra, és egyébként sem volt kóser a háztartás. Péntekenként nem jártunk el a templomba, azt nem tudom, hogy az apám elment-e. De az iskolával jártam, Scheiber [lásd: Scheiber Sándor] volt a hittantanárom, és volt bar micvóm is a Nagy Fuvaros utcai templomban.

Apámnak volt a fölfogása, hogy a gyerekeinek mindent megmutat, megtanít, aztán a többit ők döntsék el. Hát mi nem a vallásosság mellett döntöttünk. Egyikőnk sem. Nekem sajátos fölfogásom van erről, mert imádkozni mindenhol lehet, nem csak templomban; temetőbe sem járok, mert emlékezni bárkire lehet bárhol.

[Érettségi után] a Fiumei Kávébehozatali Társasághoz [A Fiumei Kávébehozatali Társaságot 1899-ben alapították.  Az első világháború után fióküzleteket nyitottak a fővárosban. Közel húsz üzletben árusítottak saját márkacikkekként forgalomba hozott fűszer- és csemegeárut, köztük teát is. – A szerk.] kerültem, annak egy fiókjában dolgoztam. Olyan 20 éves lehettem, amikor ügyvéddel elintézték, hogy megkapjam a nagykorúságot, hogy üzletvezető lehessek, illetve hogy italmérési engedélyt is lehessen a nevemre írni. Ez persze nem olyan italmérés volt, hanem zárt palackokban árultak a Fiumeinél mindenféle italt. De kellett engedély, és az engedélyt a vezető nevére kellett kérni.

Vera [későbbi felesége] egy irodában dolgozott az Elektromos Motorgyárban, a Csengery utcában. Ott vele szemben ült egy lány, aki – ez nem vicc, amit mesélek – folyton azt mesélte, hogy volt neki egy udvarlója, aki csinos volt, meg gavallér volt, meg minden. Szakítottak ugyan már, de mindig szépen emlékezett rá. Történetesen ez az udvarló a Fiumei Kávébehozatali Társaság fiókjában – a Szent István körúton, egy nagy saroküzlet – dolgozik. Nahát ez én voltam, meg az üzletvezető is én voltam. (Egyébként érdekes, hogy a Fiumeinél dolgoztak a zsidók, a Meinlnél a keresztények. Ez nem volt szabály, de így alakult, mint ahogy a zsidók mindig a ’c’ osztályba jártak. Minden iskolában így volt. Ez is csak egy íratlan szabály volt. Mindig azt mondták, hogy hittanóra-egyeztetés miatt van erre szükség, hogy a zsidók egy osztályba járjanak. Aztán hogy milyen tanárokat osztottak ezekhez az osztályokhoz, az már tényleg nem ide tartozik.)

Vera a Sziget utcában lakott, és a munkahelyére menet elhaladt többször az üzlet előtt, megnézegettük egymást magunknak (ugye ő már hallott rólam a kolléganőjétől). És aztán egyszer bejött vásárolni. És akkor én randevút kértem és belement. Valahogy így kezdődött. Ez 1941-ben volt. Akkor én már egyszer bevonultam [munkaszolgálatra], és Erdélyben voltam. És 1944. március 19-én bejöttek a németek [lásd: Magyarország német megszállása], és április 15-én megesküdtünk. Mondván, hogy úgyis minden mindegy. Két légiriadó között voltunk az elöljáróságon [anyakönyvezető]. Csak polgári esküvőnk volt, templomit nem tarthattunk. (Majd a hatvanadikat [házassági évforduló] templomban tartjuk. Három év múlva lesz.)

Akkorra én már segédmunkás voltam abban a gyárban, ahol ő [felesége] dolgozott. Leépítettek a zsidótörvények miatt, és oda kerültem a gyárba, fizikai állományba, és betanított munkás lettem, motor forgórészeket balanszíroztam gépen.

De menjünk sorban. 1942. januárban behívtak, és 1943 novemberében hazakerültem. A Donnál voltam meg mindenféle „jó helyen”, a legjobb barátaim pusztultak el, én meg véletlenül megmaradtam. Egy évig Siankiban [ma Ukrajna – A szerk.] voltunk, ez a lengyel Kárpátok északi oldala, lengyel terület volt. Ide még egyenruhában mentünk, és akkor 1943 októberében jött egy parancs, hogy otthonról küldjenek civil ruhát. Egyszerűen nem voltunk katonák többé, foglyok, rabszolgák, nem is tudom, mik voltunk. Én azért maradtam meg, mert elkerültem a munkaszázadtól a gépkocsizókhoz, mert tudtam tehergépkocsit vezetni. Amikor áttörték a doni frontot, egy traktorral húztuk a teherautót, és avval jöttünk kalandos úton Kijevig.

Aztán  májusban [1944] megint bevonultam. Az Ezredes utcában volt egy gépkocsizó-laktanya, ott voltam. És onnan jártam haza a Sziget utca 40-be, ahova az egész családom mint csillagos házba került. Egyszer, át akartam jönni a Margit-hídon, és a kapuban elkapott engem egy piszok törzsőrmester, és visszaparancsolt. 10 perccel később fölrobbant a híd [1944. november 4-én robbant fel az aláaknázott Margit híd baleset következtében. – A szerk.]. Amikor jött a Horthy [lásd: Horthy proklamáció], azt hittük, hogy rendben lesz minden; estére jöttek a nyilasok [lásd: nyilas hatalomátvétel]; akkor bezárták a laktanyát is. Onnan aztán bevagoníroztak minket, vagonba zsúfoltak a Józsefvárosi pályaudvaron, Pozsony- Ligetfalunál tettek ki, és oda jártunk tankcsapdákat ásni [A Margit híd felrobbanásának időpontjából következtetve ez néhány héttel a Horthy proklamáció közzététele – 1944. október 15. – után lehetett. – A szerk.]. Onnan egy barátommal megszöktünk Bécsbe, és pár nap illegális lógás után elkerültünk egy Ervin Metten nevű nyomdába. Ott nyomták a német zsoldkönyveket valami húsz nyelven. Szereztünk illegális papírt, de megfogtak, és börtönbe kerültünk. Onnan Lichtenwörthbe kerültem, és ott jöttek be aztán a szovjet csapatok. A feleségem azt mondta magában (amikor már hosszú hónapokig nem volt rólam semmi hír), „ha él, akkor az első házassági évfordulónkra hazajön”. Az április 15-én volt. És én április 16-án a tífuszból épphogy nagyjából felgyógyultan, irtó soványan betámolyogtam a Sziget utcába.

Anyám a háború alatt együtt volt az apámmal egy csillagos házban, és a felszabadulás előtt néhány nappal az apám elment vízért, mert  a házban egyáltalán nem volt víz, és mikor a kapu előtt volt, egy gránát repeszei megölték. Az anyám így maradt özvegy. Egyedül élt aztán, néhányszor kértem, hogy lakjon velünk, de ő jobb szeretett egyedül maradni. Sokat jártam hozzá. Anyám szerintem járt templomba, talán nem minden héten, de eljárogatott. 1960-ban halt meg. Igazán többre már nem emlékszem.

Az anyámnak volt egy öccse. Buchhalter Józsefnek hívták. Textilkereskedő volt. Megnősült, egy vidéki nagybérlő lányát vette el, és aztán Pesten laktak. [Az első világháborúban] volt az olasz fronton, Isonzónál, aztán egy textilboltja volt a Vilmos császár úton [Budapesten]. [A második világháborúban] a Dunába lőtték, de kiúszott, s még elég sokáig élt [1944 októbere, a nyilas hatalomátvétel után szabadon garázdálkodtak Budapesten, és sok zsidót kitereltek a Duna-partra, majd belelőtték a folyóba. – A szerk.].

Amikor felszabadultunk, visszaköltöztünk az eredeti házba. Nem a régi lakásunkba, hanem egy másikba, amit üresen találtunk. Ebben a lakásban előttünk németek által elhurcolt kényszermunkások laktak, akik aztán elvittek minden mozdíthatót magukkal, amikor kivonultak. Üres volt a lakás, és tele volt poloskával. De hát örültünk, hogy visszamehettünk.

A felszabadulás után hívtak vissza a régi cégemhez, a Fiumei Kávébehozatali Társasághoz, ahol én előtte több mint 10 évet dolgoztam. De nem mentem vissza, mert azt mondtam, hogy én nem akarok többé alkalmazott lenni, és csináltam egy saját üzletet. Még előtte egy rövid ideig egy papír-írószer boltba szálltam be, de összevesztem a főnökömmel, és önállósítottuk magunkat a Hold utcában. Megismerkedtem ott egy sráccal, akinek az apja a Nemzeti Bankban volt, megkaptuk azt a helyiséget, és körülbelül négy évig volt ez a kis üzletünk, papír-írószer, irodagép. Aztán föladtuk és elhelyezkedtünk. Én a Tankönyvkiadónál helyezkedtem el, aztán különböző vállalatokhoz kerültem, egyik helyről a másikra. Csináltuk az államosításokat [lásd: államosítás Magyarországon], és mindenhol, ahol én leállamosítottam, lejegyzőkönyveztem, valakit ott hagytam, és az a valaki mindig igazgató lett, én meg mentem tovább. Végül a Klauzál téri libás csarnokot államosítottam, és úgy kerültem az élelmiszerszakmába. Aztán voltam közértes [a Közért Vállalat alkalmazottja], meg csemegés [a Csemege Kereskedelmi Vállalat alkalmazottja].

Anna Dremlug

Anna Dremlug
St. Petersburg
Russia
Interviewer: Nika Parhomovskaya
Date of interview: November 2003

Anna Matveevna Dremlug is a small, thin and young-looking woman, who, despite of her eighty years of age, keeps on being active and optimistic.

She lives in a three-room apartment in one of the new city districts together with her husband and a dog called Mika.

She can’t see well and wears very strong glasses; still she currently takes care of the house. That’s why the apartment looks clean and cozy.

Guests, knowing the way she cooks (I must say that it was the most delicious home-made food), come here both on holidays and on weekdays too...

Аnna Мateveevna tells me about her relatives with great pleasure, she is ready to share any information, that she knows about her oldest ancestors, and she gives me ancient photographs without any hesitation.

  • My family

I know very little about my maternal grandparents. I can say only that, possibly, my maternal grandfather and grandmother lived on the territory of the Jewish Pale of Settlement 1 and my mother Ghindah Zusevna Alperovich, nee Bogorad, or Zinaida Zakharovna, as it was written in her passport 2, was born in Gorodok [small town in Belarus, 50 kilometers north of Vitebsk]. That was quite a remote, out-of-the-way place; however, many Jews lived there. Then her family moved to Staraya Russa [Novgorod province, 300 kilometers south of St. Petersburg].

My mother’s father Zusya Bogorad or Zakhar, as it was written in his passport, was a craftsman, and he owned a small lemonade and soda factory. Staraya Russa was a spa place, so they sold their soda and lemonade in the recreation parts of the town. My mother’s parents had fourteen children: Anna, whose Jewish name was Chaya, Bronya, Lev, Solomon [Samuel], Tatiana, Elisabeth, Zinaida, Maria, Bertha, Ida, Semen and three more children, who died in childhood. All of them, when they grew up a little, worked at the factory: girls washed dishes and guys helped Granddad.

They had their own wooden house with a mezzanine. The house wasn’t preserved, I guess. And there was a shed near the house, where the factory was situated: two big cans with kvass [soft drink made of bread] and soda, storages of cranberries in tubs and two baths to wash the bottles.

I don’t know where my grandfather was from, or where he met my grandmother, Zlata Iztkovna Bedereva. I know very badly the history of my maternal grandfather. He died, when I was only two years old, in 1925. And his date of birth is unknown. My mother told me that his wife Zlata ruled the place and business, and he, probably, closed his eyes on quite many things, and obeyed her. They spoke mainly Yiddish in the family, but they knew Russian too.

I spent much time communicating with my maternal grandmother, and she loved me very much. She was a very strict woman, though. Mother told me that she managed their factory on her own, and guys, when they went to sell the lemonade, tried to overcharge her. And she watched very carefully, how many bottles she sent, and if she noticed that something was wrong, the guys were punished.

Granny tried to give an education and a vocation to all of her children: Aunt Maria was a dressmaker, Aunt Bertha made hats, she was a milliner, and my mother learned how to knit on a special stocking machine.

Grandmother often came to see us in Bologoye [300 kilometers south of St. Petersburg]; she also liked to take me to her place in Volochek [Vyshniy Volochek, small town 350 kilometers north of Moscow]. Grandmother died on Praygka River in Leningrad, in 1948, when she was 86. She had a strong sclerosis. They buried her in the Jewish cemetery [the only Jewish cemetery in Leningrad is the Preobrazhenskoe cemetery].

My dad’s father, David Abramovitch Alperovich, was born in 1856. I don’t have any information about his brothers and sisters. It seems, he had a brother called Michael, who stayed to live on the territory of Poland after the [October] Revolution 3. After World War II his son Jacob together with his children came to see us in Bologoye.

My father’s mom, who died very early of some heart disease, was called Anna or Chaya; they named me after her, in her honor. Then Grandfather married for the second time. The second grandmother, named Itka Semenovna, was of the same age as Grandfather’s elder son, she was something like thirty years younger than Granddad, but the children liked her very much.

Grandfather was a peasant, a serednyak [a representative of the middle class, as ‘seredina’ means ‘middle’ in Russian], he lived in the village of Lipsk, Begoml district, which was situated in Borisov uezd [in Russia they divided regions into small parts, called ‘uezds.’ Begoml town, 150 kilometers north of Minsk, is a part of the Vitebsk region in Belarus today.] Grandfather had eleven children. In 1905 his elder children from the first wife left for America [after the Revolution of 1905 4 many Jews emigrated from Russia to the USA or Palestine]. Grandfather had an only daughter Maria – at home they called her Mura – from his second wife.

The family lived in an ordinary peasant house, divided into two parts: the summer part and the winter one. The summer one was cold, and there was only one room in it. At the same time, there was a Russian stove 5 in the winter rooms. Grandfather’s bed, closed off with a pink curtain, stood beyond the stove. There was no electricity, and the well was in the yard. Everything they grew, they ate, and nothing was sold. There was no garden in the usual sense, only the kitchen garden, and the only animals they had were a cow and a horse. After the Soviet power was established, my grandfather was among the first peasants to join the kolkhoz 6. He didn’t go to the army.

The Alperovichs always were friends of Belarusians. Mother told me that when I was born, Belarusian peasants came to congratulate her and brought some self-made fabric for nappies.

Grandfather wore tallit. And he had tefillin too. No doubt, that he and Grandmother Itka followed Jewish traditions. I remember, the way I helped them to bake matzah when I was a schoolgirl. But when we went into evacuation we found out that he wasn’t such an Orthodox Jew. While we were travelling in heated goods van, Mother made us sandwiches with lard and onions.

Grandfather asked us, ‘Children, what tasty things do you eat?’ We replied, ‘Grandfather, this is bread with lard.’ – ‘Ah, it smells very nice.’ – ‘Grandfather, just try it.’ He hesitated and then said, ‘We [the Jews] can’t eat pork.’ – ‘Don’t worry, Grandfather.’ And finally we gave him some sandwiches. Later, when we came to Chuvashia [an autonomous republic in the central Volga region] he bought two small pigs and began to eat pork heartily.

Grandfather and Grandmother Itka moved to Bologoye just after Aunt Zhenya married our neighbor Naum Abramovich Dik, a dentist. It happened in the early 1930s, because they didn’t want to stay in Begoml, for they were old and didn’t have enough forces to keep the house. After all, all their children left Lipsk and they wanted to live near their children and grandchildren.

During the evacuation they went to Chuvashia, to Tarkhany [small village in the south of Chuvashia]. First, we lived there all together: my grandparents, my mother and my sisters, my aunt and her daughter, my cousin. Then they stayed in Tarkhany together with Aunt Zhenya, and we left for another village after I got a job in a kolkhoz. We all came back home in 1943.

I, just like my father, was born in Lipsk, not far from Begoml in Borisov uezd, which is now in Belarus. Then my mother went back to Staraya Russa, and in the mid-1920s we moved to Valdasi [small town in Novgorod district, 300 kilometers west of St. Petersburg]. I don’t remember anything about our life in Valdasi. The only thing I remember is: when Sophia, my middle sister, who is three years younger than I am, was born, we went to the hospital.

I remember the black hat of Aunt Bertha and that it was raining. Bertha, my mother’s sister, lived in Valdasi together with her husband, a Communist. She was a housewife then, I think.

In 1930 we moved to Bologoye. We lived there in an ordinary wooden house with two floors. The owner, Naum Abramovich, lived on the second floor, and we rented one of the apartments on the first floor. We lived in that house till the Great Patriotic War 7 began. And even later, in 1948, after Dad came back from the front, my parents bought a quarter of that building.

There was a small garden in front of the house. In general Bologoye was a green town, with its nice park and public garden.

We had neither a synagogue, nor a rabbi. We didn’t even have a shochet. When Grandfather came over from Belarus he ate only kosher food, and it was necessary to kosher the chicken, so my mother especially went to the local shochet in Vyshniy Volochek to do so. And later she said she would go to Volochek, but Father koshered the chicken himself – in principle, he knew what to do.

There still were some Jews in Bologoye, but not a lot. My friend Rebecca Alpert was a Jew; her father was a dressmaker. The school headmaster Mark Evseitch and his sisters, the Parmit family – their grandfather was a metalworker, I think – and Raya, the hairdresser, lived not far from us. After World War II the family of my father’s cousin arrived too: he, his son and two daughters.

And our milliner was a Jew – from the Kalach family, if I’m not mistaken. There was also the Finkelshtein family; I studied together with Bertha Finkelshtein at school. Well, there weren’t many Jews in our town in total, maybe, about one hundred people. And the town was a small one. All Jews knew each other and communicated with one another, since they all lived nearby.

Everyone had his own business: for example, Aunt Maria Alperovich, my father’s cousin Jacob’s wife, was a bookkeeper; she worked in ‘Kalinintorg’ [the regional selling union], Uncle Jacob himself was employed at the meat processing and packing factory, and Mark Evseitch was the school headmaster. There were Jewish office workers, someone worked as pharmaceutical chemist in the drugstore, and another one was a seller. 

My father Matvey Davidovich Alperovich was born in 1898. Among those children, who stayed – those, who didn’t leave for America – Father was the oldest one, his sisters Zhenya, Rachel, Ghitah and step-sister Maria were younger than him. He didn’t communicate a lot with his American relatives, but even after the October Revolution Father’s sister Zhenya wrote to them 8. I don’t know anything about their lives over there: neither what they were, nor where exactly they lived. However, I recall that we received their parcels: they sent us food and some fabrics.

We also received letters in Yiddish, and Father read them together with Aunt Zhenya – they both knew Yiddish and could write it. Of course, Yiddish was their mother tongue, but at home Father spoke both languages: Russian as well as Yiddish. He wasn’t a religious person, not at all. I can’t recall that he would observe Sabbath or pray. Perhaps, he had some Jewish education, but he never told me if he studied in cheder, or in a regular elementary school. I can’t even say what kind of education he got; maybe, they had no schools in Begoml district? 

Father’ sisters wrote to those brothers and sisters, who left for America, mainly to Sarah and Olga. Today Olga’s children live in Canada. When Larissa, Ghitah’s daughter immigrated to Canada, she visited them. One of Olga’s children happened to be an architect: he has his own office, and they aren’t poor. Another one of my father’s sisters, Rachel, left for Canada in 1926. My aunt lived in Toronto, Canada, and had her own dry cleaner.

In Soviet times she came to Leningrad [today St. Petersburg, called St. Petersburg before WWI and Petrograd during WWI] twice – in the 1950s and 1970s – with a tourist voucher. Aunt Zhenya even got permission to live with her sister in ‘Pribaltiiskaya’ Hotel, and they, of course, didn’t go around much, they mostly talked. When she came for the second time, she stayed in ‘Astoria’ [one of the oldest and most expensive hotels in Leningrad]. Then she went to Moscow, where she stayed at the ‘Ukraine’ Hotel.

My mother lived in Moscow at the time, and we went to visit Rachel. I saw her only there, for when she went to Leningrad, I didn’t go to the meeting: I was scared, my husband worked in the Navy College, he was connected with sailing abroad, we spoke and decided that it doesn’t make any sense to risk so much.

My mother was born in Gorodok in 1900. I don’t know, when her family moved to Staraya Russa, but, it seems to me, that happened around 1913; mother told me a story about some London aunt, who wanted to take them to her, but then Jews were allowed to live on Russian territories in honor of the Romanov dynasty’s 300th anniversary [in 1913 in Russia they celebrated the 300th anniversary of Romanovs’ rule], and they decided to stay.

I guess, they believed in some better future as the authorities allowed them to live in Russia, not far from the capital and to run their business. Probably, they just didn’t want to emigrate and leave their Motherland and hoped that everything would be all right for them in Russia.

At school my mother was a friend of some Russian girls. And apparently her name ‘Ghindah’ wasn’t in use, everyone called her Zina [short for Zinaida], and so it happened to be the same in the future. Her brothers and sisters were close friends, they all played and studied together, and Tatiana, one of the elder children, ruled this small group. The two of them slept in one common bed.

Here I should tell you more about them. Anna was one of the oldest siblings. She was born in the early 1890s, but I don’t remember what she did for a living. I know exactly that she lived in Toropets [small town in Kalinin district] and had four children: two sons and two daughters. One of her sons became an assistant to the public prosecutor.

One of the brothers, Lev, was born in the early 1890s too. He was the only one, who followed in his father’s footsteps, for he worked in the lemonade and soda industry. He was employed at a factory in Leningrad district, and from Staraya Russa he moved to Pavlovsk [town near Leningrad, summer residence of Russian tsars]. He had three sons, I remember that Samuel worked with medical equipment and Isaac was a colonel, head of department in the Academy of Transport Troops.

Bronya, another elder sister of my mother, was a dressmaker, she lived in Bologoye too. Tatiana was born in 1897, Mother said that she was ‘literate’; she worked in a shop, then in some personnel department. She was married to Abram and had two children: Zusia was killed during World War II, and her daughter Emma became a doctor. Finally she moved to Kolpino [town near Leningrad] and died there in the 1970s.

Semen, the youngest brother, was born in 1904 and died in 1965; he managed a store, worked as a shop assistant, and lived in Vyshniy Volochek and Leningrad. He had a nice wife, Esphir, and two daughters. As I guess, he was Grandmother’s favorite and she lived at his place often.

I also remember that Maria, the next sister, was born in 1901, and she was a dressmaker too. First she lived in Toryok [small town 250 kilometers north of Moscow], then evacuated to Chuvashia, and finally, after the Great Patriotic War, found herself in Kiev. She had two daughters: Elizabeth, who graduated from the Pedagogical University, and Eugenia, who immigrated to Germany and now lives there.

I know very little about my mother’s other two siblings: Elizabeth, who was born in 1899 and died in 1927, and Samuel, who died in the early 1920s from typhus. Elizabeth died, when I was a little girl. I don’t know why, but I remember her very well in her blue dress with white dots. And as for Samuel, he died even before my birth.

Aunt Ida was born in 1903 and died in 1986; she was a bookkeeper. From Staraya Russa she moved to Okulovka [small town in Novgorod district, about 400 kilometers from Moscow]. Her husband, Uncle Boris, was a nepman [small owner, businessman, called after the NEP 9], later he was arrested, but they didn’t shoot him. Sometimes we went to visit them, even then [in the 1930s] they had a housekeeper, they were much richer than we were, and sold some manufactured goods. Later they moved to Leningrad. Ida and Boris had a son, who left for Germany. I never liked him and them either.

Mother’s sister Bertha was born in 1902 and died in 1988. She worked as a sales assistant and at a factory, lived in Valdasi and Leningrad. Bertha was married to David Ilkovsky, who was one of the first Komsomol 10 members. In the 1920s he was an active member of the Communist Party, but later they arrested him too. And they were opposites: nepmen Ida and Boris and Komsomol guys Bertha and David.

They argued till their death, which one was right. However, my father was more of a friend of Uncle David, and we communicated a lot with them both. They had a wonderful daughter called Nelya; I was great friends with her.

Mother never told me stories about her brothers and sisters, but I saw them often and communicated a lot with most of them. My parents had friendly relations with many of their brothers and sisters. Mother communicated with Tatiana, who, just like us, during World War II was evacuated to Chuvashia, more than with others.

My parents got to know each other during the Civil War 11. My father was in the army; he served in a sanitary company. Their sanitary train went to Staraya Russa; Father went for a walk, found a place, where they sold kvass, and went inside the house. Mother washed the floors; she interrupted her work, washed her hands and gave him some kvass. So they met, and began to talk.

Then, together with his unit, he left, but they continued to write to each other. And, after he was demobilized from army, Mother went to Belarus, to that village called Lipsk. There they registered their relations in 1922, but the large Jewish wedding happened in Staraya Russa later, some time in 1923, even after my birth. Probably, they didn’t organize the wedding in Belarus, because they didn’t have the money to afford it. And my maternal grandparents were richer than the paternal ones, and maybe Mother asked her parents to help her with a big celebration.

The point is that after my birth my mother decided to go back home to Staraya Russa to stay with her parents: she was bored in Lipsk because she came from a town, wore town clothes and, apparently, was a coquette, and Lipsk happened to be a small peasant village, where nothing was going on. Then Father came to Staraya Russa too. I suppose, it could have been in late 1923 or around that time.

A couple of years later, in 1926, they moved to Valdasi, where Mother’s sister Bertha lived together with her husband. There Father got a job as a regular employee in Prom cooperation [so-called Industrial cooperation, state unit of stores and small businesses]. We left Valdasi, when I was six, and my sister Sophia was around three, that is, in 1930. Then we settled in Bologoye, where we rented an apartment from a dentist: two rooms and a kitchen.

There was electricity and a radio in the house, but we had to bring the water from outside. The kitchen was very cold, and there was a great demand for firewood to warm it up. 

Father was the director of ‘Koghsyrie’ – a small organization, part of Prom cooperation, where peasants from neighborhood villages brought animal skins. A man responsible for raw materials worked there too, together with my father, who, as a matter of fact, only admitted the skins. The job was very poorly paid, we lived very modestly. We had neighbors, who worked at the railway and got better rations [food help for state employees 12] than my father. We mainly bought food and stuff at the market, then we got a goat, a pig, chicken, and, for some period of time, even a cow, so we managed somehow.

Mother was unemployed: children on her hands, and no place to work. She hated her profession as a knitter, sewed only stocks and scarves from time to time, but, apparently, she didn’t like to sew at all. I recall that once Mother came and said, ‘They sell cream crepe de Chine. I want to buy it for a blouse.’ And then Sophia and I took out our savings and went to Aunt Zhenya to get some money too, and finally bought this fabric for Mom.

Father wasn’t a Komsomol member, however in 1938 he joined the Communist Party – maybe, not on his own initiative, I think, they made him join. At that time Stalin’s terror 13 had begun already, and it was less dangerous if you were a Communist, especially for Jews.

Once in their life my parents went on vacation with a voucher – Father got this voucher as a civil servant: before World War II, when they just built the Belomorsko-Baltiyskiy Channel [connecting the White Sea with Lake Onega, was built in the 1930s, political prisoners actively participated in its creation]. And we stayed at home – we never spent holidays all together, never ever in our lives, we just didn’t have such an opportunity.

Then Father went to a recreation center in Eysk [small town in Krasnodar district] at the Azov Sea coast before World War II. He also went to Moscow, when the VDNH [Exhibition of People’s Economic Achievements] was just opened. And mainly they spent time in Bologoye, there was a lake, and we went for walks to Putyatin garden, and organized dances in the evenings.

There were some books at our home, but not very many. We only had a small bookshelf with books. I think those were the usual books: Soviet fiction, Russian classics, and no religious books for sure. Father mainly read the newspaper, but I don’t remember which one, maybe, the local one, as in Bologoye, certainly, there was a local newspaper.

Father read more, Mom less – she started to read later, when she was free of children. Then she began to read avidly, borrowed books from neighbors, and later, when she moved to us – after the death of her second husband in the 1970s, she moved to Leningrad and lived with me and my husband – she read the ‘Leningrad Pravda’ [meaning Truth in Russian; main city newspaper, the official press issue of the local Communist Party], and ‘Izvestia’ [News; all-Russian newspaper, established in the 1920s].

Anyway, she developed a passion for reading. But back in Bologoye we had a neighbor who loved to read so much, that my mother even reproached her for it: ‘The dinner isn’t readу, the children haven’t eaten yet, but she sits there and reads!’

My mother was a very friendly and convivial person. And so was Daddy. They both had nice voices, they both sang songs. On Soviet holidays, such as 1st May, for example, when everyone gathered, Father sang both Jewish and Ukrainian songs.

It is hard to say what kind of relations they had. Mother thought that Father was unfaithful to her. I don’t know if she was right or not, but sometimes she was jealous for no reason. I recall such an incident: in Bologoye some Jewish family lived not far from us, and the wife, apparently, liked my dad and invited him to some birthday party. Father bought a box of sweets and hid it somewhere in the house, but Mom found the box, and there was a big scandal.

As a matter of fact, I liked my father very much, maybe, even more than my mother. Sometimes, in my childhood I was more on his side, it seemed to me that Mother wasn’t right about him. Probably, I should have understood her too: she didn’t have any interests: she didn’t work and had to talk to people, who, possibly, were much less interesting, than she wanted them to be.

Our neighbors in Bologoye were mainly Russians; there weren’t a lot of Jews in town. My parents had friendly relations both with our neighbors and relatives. On holidays we met with the family of my father’s cousin, his sister, grandfather and grandmother. He didn’t communicate much with his work colleagues. Mother had very good relations with my paternal grandparents. They never lived together, but they were our frequent guests. If Dad didn’t go to Grandfather, Mother always said, ‘Motya – short for Matvey, Dad’s name at home – you should go and see your father.’ She baked cakes for them, and sent them presents from time to time.

Father suddenly died in 1956 from some form of cancer. I lived in Leningrad and was a doctor, so my mother called me and said that he was sick. I asked them to come. So they came at the very beginning of 1956, the first days of January. I took him to Mechnikov hospital, one of the best in Leningrad, but the doctors couldn’t understand what was going on. They said that he had cancer only after his death. So we buried him at the Jewish cemetery, the same one where my Granny was buried, and most of her children later on.

After Father’s death Mother stayed to live in Bologoye until my younger sister Lilia graduated from school and went to Leningrad to study. Later someone introduced her to Lev Moiseevich Tylkin, the brother of Aunt Ida’s second husband [mother’ sister, who married for the second time, after her husband died]. He lived in Moscow and was a widower. Mother sold her apartment in Bologoye, moved to Moscow and together with her new husband built a one-room ‘cooperative’ there [in the USSR apartments weren’t private, the state decided itself where citizens should live].

My mother had a very interesting life in those years, she liked this person and his friends, they had nice neighbors, who were much more interesting and intellectual people than the ones she had to communicate with in her previous life. They read many books, played cards and came to visit their numerous pals and neighbors. However, Lev Moiseevich died sometime around 1976, and it was necessary to decide where Mom would live. We wanted her to go to my younger sister in Vladimir [regional center, 200 kilometers from Moscow], but Mother wanted to move only to Leningrad. As a result, she exchanged her Moscow apartment and moved to us.

  • Childhood and young years

In my childhood, when I went to Staraya Russa to see my grandmother Zlata, she made me pray before breakfast, and I refused:

– Granny, I’m not an old woman, I won’t pray.
– So, I won’t give you cacao.
– I don’t need any…

I was a very little girl, I was five. And my grandmother prayed.

I also remember that once they sent me to Grandmother after I got typhus. My parents lived very poorly, and at my grandmother’s in Vyshniy Volochek life was a bit easier. So we went for a walk and I noticed a doll with no head lying in a ditch. We took the body, washed it, bought a head and made a real doll – my first real big doll ever!

I don’t remember Volochek itself because I was very little, I was only six, but I remember that Granny liked me more than all her other grandchildren. When she came to visit, she always asked Mother to let me go with her. She liked tasty things herself, that’s why she always put some sweets or chocolates under my pillow. I slept in her room, and they had three rooms, and a hall, and a kitchen.

There was a garden and a small courtyard. The building was in the center of the town. It was a two-storied wooden house, and Semen rented the second floor. He lived there together with his wife Esphir and his mother, my Granny. I liked to go there because I liked Grandmother and also because they lived much better than my own parents.

I never went to a kindergarten; my mother raised me and my sister herself. Later, when already a schoolgirl, I often went to pioneer camps 14. I started school, when I was eight. I studied at the school #11 15, which was called ‘eleventh railway.’ There were only three schools in town: ours, twelfth railway and the ordinary one. Our school was the state one, but the railway union supported it.

For example, we traveled to Leningrad on holidays and vacations. Our school was a very good one, I think; it was the best one in town. We had good teachers – the only one I could complain about was our literature teacher, who was very young, had just graduated from the Institute – and we got a good education.

Our school was located in a wooden building, actually two buildings, connected with a corridor. It was situated in the very center of the town, on one of the main streets. We had a special hall for sport activities, the school provided all kinds of faculties. During the Technical Education lessons we made shelves and sewed things. We had wonderful New Year’s Eve celebrations, and there was a big fir-tree standing in the middle of the school hall.

I recall with pleasure both the pioneer camps and military games: we had to find a hidden flag and so on. At the pioneer camps military games were popular. They had to prepare the youth for defending their Motherland, usually children were separated into two teams, put on different uniforms and were ‘fighting.’ Their goal was to find the headquarters of the enemies and to take their flag.

I took part in amateur talent activities; we had a wonderful theater studio, and our Physics teacher managed it. So I was the main star over there, I played the leading roles. We performed ‘Poverty is No Crime’ [a play by A.N. Ostrovsky (1823-1886): Famous Russian playwright, author of more than fifty plays, both social and historical] and I played the main role. There were evenings of amateur talent activities at the local Palace of Culture [a kind of recreation center], there was a good House of Pioneers. Also, when they organized evenings of amateur talent activities, I recited poetry to musical accompaniment.

I recall my childhood with great pleasure, not paying attention to all the difficulties. We had always been at the very center of life, not paying attention to the fact that we were Jews. And we had friends and were dating. We were friends of the Parmit brothers; they were Jews and all three of them were murdered during World War II. The brothers played different musical instruments, first mandolins and then violins. I had friends only among my schoolmates. We danced: in summer in the railway club and on the territory of the Putyatin garden. We danced foxtrot, tango and waltz. We had optional dancing lessons at school.

Besides, we had a very good Music teacher, Grigory Vikentievitch Uspensky. He told us a lot about music and composers. I started to take some additional music lessons: there was a piano at my Aunt Zhenya’s, but it was standing in a very cold room, which could be hardly warmed up, and it was almost impossible to practice, so I stopped doing this.

I liked our Geography teacher Galina Konstantinovna and our Chemistry teacher too. He always said, ‘Nobody knows Chemistry so well as to get an excellent grade, I know it well enough to get a four [out of five].’ I remember also, that we had a very good Physics teacher, Anna Semenovna Ossipova. Her brother came from Leningrad once for New Year’s Eve, when we performed ‘Poverty is No Crime.’

He invited me for a dance and started to make me compliments, he said that I should apply to the Theater Institute. I was burning to do that and before World War II, I wrote to GITIS [the State Institute for Theater Arts in Moscow], I even got a booklet with rules of admittance from there.

Daddy, of course, tried to dissuade me from it: ‘To be an actress, you need to be beautiful.’ And I replied, ‘Father, I’m not ugly.’ And my boyfriend Valery Buchinsky – he was killed in World War II – tried to dissuade me too. And then the Great Patriotic War came: we had the graduation party in June, on 17th June 1941, and the war started on 22nd June.

However, my friend Rebecca and I were in the last grade and we decided to enter the Philological Faculty of Leningrad University and even had a chance to send them some of our documents. I don’t remember why we chose that particular faculty, probably, we thought that it was great, because it was connected with literature. At first Rebecca and I studied in different classes. And I don’t know remember why, but I had some argument with my friend Valentina Egorova, maybe, we liked the same guy, maybe it was something else.

In any case, I felt such loneliness… The depression started, I needed some support, and I spoke to Rebecca, and then I moved to her class. And we agreed to apply to one institute and to prepare for entry exams together: Rebecca was very accurate, she could manage her time well, and I needed to have someone with such a character nearby. Of course, I had all excellent marks too, and studied well, but I wasn’t self-disciplined enough.

Rebecca and I participated in our school Komsomol bureau [the ruling Komsomol organ], and once they decided to edit a statement about paying for studies, and we told everyone about our resentment. Then they called us up just to this bureau and gave us a dressing down, and said that there was no need to talk.

It seems, at the beginning of the 1930s in Bologoye they organized something like a prayer house, men gathered there, and my father went there too. However, as a matter of fact, my parents didn’t follow Jewish traditions at home, they mainly celebrated Soviet holidays, and Father wasn’t a religious person, not at all. At school we didn’t study Hebrew, and there was neither a cheder nor a yeshivah in town. Our Dad had a bar mitzvah for sure, but they didn’t organize any bat mitzvot for us. We spoke Russian at home, sometimes putting in separate Yiddish words.

Of course, Grandmother Zlata kept the Sabbath. I recall one funny episode. In Volochek they had a housekeeper, but she was off on Saturday, and it was necessary to warm up the samovar: to pour in the water, then put coal, and light a match. Grandmother walked around and shouted: ‘Shabes [Sabbath] how can I warm up the samovar, how can I warm the samovar?’ I said, ‘Let me warm it up, you only have to take it down and put it on the floor, and I will put in the water.’

I took a pot, put the water in and said, ‘Granny, you now raise the samovar.’ Basically, I made her do almost everything on her own. Of course, she celebrated Sabbath and, I think, although I don’t know this for sure, that she was a religious person till her death. And the Alperovichs observed Jewish traditions too. I know that Grandfather prayed, but I don’t know, if he did it till his death.

I remember that I liked it very much when Grandmother Itka, Father’s stepmother, invited all our relatives to hers before Pesach and they baked matzot. They rolled out the dough on such huge, soft desks; then they put it with the very long oven fork into the Russian stove. I was so impressed by this performance! Of course, they had Pesach celebrations and, probably, conducted seder dinners, but I can’t recall any of those holidays. I told you the story of baking matzah, because I really loved the whole process and it’s such a bright memory that I simply can’t forget it!

We didn’t feel any particular anti-Semitism. Once at school they called me ‘zhidovka’ [kike], and that was a boy, who was in love with me later. His name was Monka [Edmond] Rogovich and he was Polish. There was a special class meeting, where they discussed his behavior.

We celebrated holidays the same as now: gathered with relatives, ate tasty food and talked. We went to demonstrations on 1st May, or on October Revolution Day 16 –they were held on the football field – and sang songs. Usually we celebrated all holidays in school, and I was the main boss over there. We sang pioneer songs at demonstrations, but I don’t remember exactly which ones.

My sister Sophia – Sarah Alperovich, in her passport – was born on 25th May 1926; we lived in Valdasi. As a matter of fact, she was a madcap; she’d better been a boy, not a girl. She would play with boys, run and fight; Sophia never was calm, never sat still and always hurried somewhere. She was a worse student than I, but, after graduation from school, she came to Leningrad and entered the Faculty of History in ‘Gertzenovsky’ [the Pedagogical Institute, named after Gertzen (Hertzen), Russian revolutionary, writer and philosopher].

Anyway, she didn’t finish the Institute as she got married. Her husband Alexander was a sailor, and they sent him to the North, to Polyarny [small settlement at Kola Bay], and she departed together with him. Then he served in Dikson [port city on the Kara Sea], Magadan [regional center located on the Sea of Okhotsk], Vladivostok [big city in the Far East], Nakhodka [port city situated on the Japanese Sea, 100 kilometers from Vladivostok], and they never came back to Leningrad.

They have two children: Boris and Olga, who both live in Vladivostok. Some time ago, Olga’s daughter’s got married, and Sophia has grandchildren now. In spite of the fact that my husband is Russian, and Sophia’s husband is a Jew, she doesn’t identify herself as a Jewish woman any more than I do. Sophia’s son Boris is married to a Russian, his son is married to a Russian too, and Olga was married to a Russian, and her daughter too. So all of them are Russified.

Vladimir, the son of my nephew Boris, graduated from the Law Faculty of Vladivostok University; he got married while a student. Recently, together with his young wife, who is a lawyer too, he moved to Moscow to get some additional education. Perhaps, they will stay to live there. Sophia calls us often, we write letters to each other, and I have many photos from Vladivostok in our family album.

Lilia [Matveevna Danilova], my other sister, was born on 19th February 1941. Mother wasn’t a very young woman, she was 41, but Dad wanted a boy. So they decided to keep the child, when she got pregnant. We had already grown up and thought of leaving home, and they didn’t want to stay alone. I remember why they called her Lilia. There was one Jewish family in Bologoye, the parents and three daughters.

One of them, Lilia, was a real beauty, and when I looked at her I got jealous. In her honor I named my sister Lilia: she was dark and I believed that she would be as beautiful. Lilia grew up mainly in Dad’s absence, without a father: she was four, when Dad came back from the front in 1945. And then, while she studied in the ninth grade, Father died. She was less lively than we were. Mother always said, ‘Why is Lilia so sad?’ And she asked us, me and Sophia, ‘Why are you so beautiful, and I’m not like you?’

Later Lilia went to Leningrad, finished college, and got a job assignment to Vladimir 17. She met her husband, an ordinary Russian guy, at some dance. Thank God, they have lived together for forty years. They have two children and grandchildren already too. All of them immigrated to America; they live near Los Angeles. First her elder daughter Svetlana went to America.

She got married to a Jew from Odessa called Vladimir. They are great friends, he makes good money, and Svetlana gave birth to two children. Then Lilia, her husband and their younger daughter Elena together with her husband moved to California too. They left a year or two ago. We keep in touch; my sister continues to write and calls often. I have good relations with both my nieces too.

  • During the war

On 19th October 1941 we left for evacuation in goods wagons. My mother and sisters and I went on the upper deck, and Grandfather with Grandmother on the lower one. They gave us some food at certain stations and in certain wagons: bread and something else. We went under bombings, because we left after the Germans took Kalinin [today Tver, regional center 175 kilometers from Moscow]. They bombed the railway rolling stock in front of us, and we stopped very often.

Before we departed, Mother made flannel-wool dressing gowns for us, and we all had knapsacks with documents. Mother said, ‘My daughters, you run and I’ll manage somehow with Lilia.’ Lilia was four months old, when World War II started, and seven months, when we departed for evacuation. Finally, we happily arrived in Chuvashia on 7th November 1941. The Chuvash people [a Turkic ethnic group, living mainly on the Middle Volga] met us.

They were fine fellows; they welcomed us in a very friendly manner and hosted us well. They came to take us on the sledges, then guided us to the village, put us up in their houses. The Chuvash didn’t speak Russian, and we, naturally, didn’t know any Chuvash. The only way to communicate with them was by using gestures. They placed us with some illiterate peasants – an old woman, her daughter-in law, and the little boy, whose father went to the army, but we learned Chuvash quickly.

At first they employed us at the motor-transport station and I became a weigher. It was a night job, and it was very cold, Mother muffled me in ‘valenki’ [traditional Russian felt boots] and a sheepskin. We used all winter clothes that we had taken with us. We sold Father’s clothes – he had a ‘bekesh’ [short sheepskin] – as it was necessary to buy food. After I found a job, I got a food ration.

Then, my pal Sarah Sigal, who repatriated to Israel later on, worked as a head bookkeeper in ‘raizemotdel’ [regional land department] and invited me and Sophia, one of my cousins, to be accountants. We even learned about external courses for accountants, and I applied for those courses. Later they moved us from Tarkhany village to a village, where I was employed as an accountant. We got a separate house over there, while our grandparents stayed in Tarkhany. We bought a goat, a couple of pigs, some chickens, and organized our own husbandry.

We returned from evacuation by train, in regular passenger wagons. I don’t remember if we had to pay for the tickets. And there was some Moscow couple in front of us, so Mother asked them to accompany me in Moscow. That’s why I dropped off in Moscow and spent a whole day there. I had to do that because we had a ration, and my mother wasn’t sure that we could get food at home in Bologoye. So she decided that I’d better try to do that in Moscow.

I don’t remember, if I got any food or not, but I think Mother risked a lot, leaving her daughter alone. I have no idea how we kept the connection with my father. Maybe, we wrote him a letter. Perhaps, he knew our address in Chuvashia, because when we left for evacuation, he was in the Home guard; he went to the front a little bit later.

So we came back home in 1943, in March, just after the Stalingrad Battle 18. Bologoye was destroyed, but not completely, most of the houses were intact and only some were bombed. Our house was preserved, and our family lived there till Dad’s death.

When we came back from evacuation to Bologoye, our neighbors were very glad to see us. Some of them didn’t even leave; they lived under the bombing, made kitchen gardens everywhere, and ploughed up where it was possible. The evacuation, apparently, wasn’t obligatory. However, we certainly wouldn’t have survived: we were not afraid of hunger as much as of the Germans that could have come to kill all Jews. 

I wanted to study very much, but we – my sister and I – got typhus and spotted fever just after we came back home in 1943. And it was necessary to get some food wherever and however possible, so Mother and Grandmother Itka began to fry fish and bring it to the trains [Bologoye is a large railway station]. Later they found a little bit of wheat somewhere and started to bake pies and cakes and meet the trains. Not only my mother was baking, other women did the same.

Fortunately, during the Holocaust almost all of our family survived: my sisters, mother and father. However, my cousin Zusya, the son of my mother’ sister Tatiana, was killed near Leningrad. On my father’s side only Dad fought, and on my mother’s side Uncle Isaac was a colonel of railway troops. The husband of Aunt Bertha was arrested in 1938 [during the period of the Great Terror]; she was exiled too.

That meant that both the war and the concentration camps, thank God, passed them by. Besides, her husband David Ilkovsky was a Communist, he graduated from the High Party School 19 in Moscow, and I never heard any ‘anti-Sovietchina’ [speeches against Soviet power and Communist order] from him.

  • Later life

In 1944 I went to Leningrad to apply for the Medical Institute. My friend Rebecca, who had entered the Philological Faculty earlier, during the evacuation, advised me against entering this faculty: ‘It is necessary to read a lot, and you have poor eyesight. Now after the war, there are plenty of injured, you should go to the Medical Faculty, and you’ll always have a piece of bread, and it’s a useful job.’ I obeyed her, entered with no exams – I had an excellent school leaving certificate  – and they even wanted to admit me to the Dentist Faculty, but I decided to apply for the medical one. That one was also in Leningrad.

The Dentist Faculty was situated on the street named after Peter Lavrov [one of the oldest streets in the city, today it has its pre-Revolution name Furshtatskaya], in a very beautiful building. And I went to the 7th November [day of the October Revolution] Ball. My hair had grown a little, girls helped to curl it, using pieces of paper and so I had a new haircut. I had my mother’s shoes; Father had bought her those shoes just before the war: they were very beautiful, gray, with high heels, and a net, something like open-toe sandals. Mom gave me those shoes and a piece of the gray crepe de Chine, from which they sewed a ‘sun-flared’ dress in the atelier on Gorky Street.

I also went to the New Year’s Ball in the Teachers’ House. There were light effects, balloons and mirrors. I, after all, danced very well; I even got a prize for dancing some years earlier, while studying in Bologoye. There were mainly girls in our Medical Institute, and from time to time, we got together with some college, for example, the highest Technical Engineering College, and organized dance evenings. At the Institute I had both Jewish and Russian pals, we got on very well and arranged gatherings for many years. The last time we met, was forty years after our graduation.

I studied at the Medical Institute for four years. Part of that time I lived on the campus of that Institute, and later I got married and lived at my husband’s, and then my son was born, and I had to take a year’s pause. Then, after I came back, I had to pass two extra exams, for the Institute changed its status and turned to a Sanitary-Hygienic one.

The first year after my graduation and diploma I didn’t work, but then I was sick of staying at home, and they sent me to the sanitary epidemiological station of Dzerzhinsky district, where I was head of the school sanitary department. [Editor’s note: Such sanitary epidemiological services existed in all parts of the city, they controlled the cleanness and hygiene in different organizations.]

After World War II none of my relatives left the country. And where could we go? To America? With no money? And there was no Israel at the time. And they didn’t discuss the foundation of the state of Israel 20, and I can’t even recall when I learned about it. 

When I studied in the third year of my Institute, in 1946, Father bought a voucher to the health resort ‘Shirokoe,’ which was lucky from all points of view. They put me in a club, called ‘monkey place.’ And my future husband, Valentin Dremlug, lived just opposite – at the so-called ‘blue dacha 21.’ After I arrived, he said, ‘One more monkey has come to the monkey place.’ The next day, in the morning, I went to the dining room, raised my eyes and saw a puny man walk before me. I passed him and paid no attention. After breakfast I went back and saw him again. He stopped and said, ‘Excuse me, are you staying here too? Do you live in the club? Did you come a long time ago? I see you for the first time.’ That was the very beginning. I stayed in this health resort for two weeks, and he left a bit before my holidays came to an end.

Then he went to Leningrad, and I came back to Bologoye. And we made an agreement that he would meet me at the railway station. I arrived in Leningrad, walked a little and saw that everyone was meeting people with flowers. Of course, like a provincial girl, I was trying hard to find the biggest bouquet; however, he wasn’t among the ‘big bouquets.’ I found him finally just near the railway station building with a small bouquet in his hands. Well, so we met, he took me to my campus on Kirillovskaya Street, gave me the flowers: there were red pinks and asparagus, a very elegant bouquet for those times.

And so we began being friends, and then, in November he proposed to me, although we knew each other for three months only. We got married in January 1947. First there was a wedding without any registration, and then we went to ZAGS and registered our relations. [ZAGS: ‘Signing-up the acts of civil conditions’ – the state establishment, where marriages, divorces, births and deaths are registered.]

My father didn’t like my husband at first, not because he wasn’t Jewish, but due to the fact that he wasn’t a tall and strong man. He even blamed my mother, who went to Leningrad to check my choice before the wedding took place. But later they had good relations, and we never had any troubles because of his nationality.

His mother’s parents were peasants, and his father’s parents were craftsmen. Apparently, all his ancestors were Russians, but my mother-in-law told me that her grandfather was a Nikolai soldier 22, a baptized Jew. I don’t know if that is true, probably, she just wanted to say something pleasant to me.

His father Valentin was responsible for electricity in Peterhof Palace [summer residence of Russian Emperors, built in the 1720s on the orders of Peter the Great], he sailed with the tsar on ‘Shtandart’ [famous ship, which the last Russian tsar used to sail on]. And till his very death in 1940 he was an electrician at the Russian Museum, at the Ethnography Museum, and, I think, even in the Winter Palace [Tsar Palace in Petersburg, after October Revolution of 1917 and until today the State Hermitage].

My husband’s mother Lidia Alexandrovna was a florist. She graduated from the Genetics Faculty of Leningrad University and developed new, different sorts of flowers. She worked on the so-called control-experience station in Pushkin [one of the Leningrad outskirts, got its name after the poet Alexander Pushkin, before October Revolution of 1917 used to be called Tsar Selo, or Tsar Village].

My husband Valentin entered the Hydrography Institute even before World War II but he didn’t have a chance to graduate. He passed his finals in Krasnoyarsk [big city in Siberia]. After the war finished, he went to get a PhD degree in Leningrad; in 1949 he fulfilled his academic program and got a job as the head of a sub-faculty. He worked in the Highest Arctic College until his retirement in the 1980s. He was assistant professor there and he held lectures.

Our son Igor was born in December 1947; he lives in Leningrad. He followed in his father’s footsteps: he was involved in ocean research and went on expeditions. Igor, of course, always knew that he is a Jew, that his grandparents were Jews. I don’t know for sure, when or how he learned it. I remember only that once he came home and said, ‘Mom, you don’t know the Jewish language yourself and didn’t teach me either.’ However, theoretically, we didn’t have any reasons to teach him the language, or the traditions, which I didn’t know myself. He didn’t ever suffer from the fact that he was a Jew, because, when he turned sixteen, he got a passport, where it was written that he was Russian 23.

After perestroika 24 he left science, and now he is involved in insurance business. He has a son, Anton. Igor was married twice: his first wife Natalia, the mother of his son, is half-Jewish, like him. She is an architect, and she lives in Petersburg not far from us. His second wife Irina was an engineer, and after perestroika she was involved in insurance business too. She is Jewish, and they went to Israel some years ago. He said that this trip changed his life and he wants to go to Israel one more time. He lives together with his second wife and their beloved cat, Mars, in her apartment in one of the new districts of the city.

As for Stalin, I remember the following incident. Zhenya, my father’ sister, went to Leningrad and stayed at our place. And suddenly she noticed that a picture, which I liked very much, a picture of Stalin holding a girl, hung next to my son Igor’s bed. And she said, ‘How come you put this monster near your child’s bed?’ I was surprised, but I took the picture off. And after Stalin died [in 1953], I cried, and we all cried. Later, of course, we began to understand what was going on.

When the Doctor’s Plot 25 started, I worked at the sanitary epidemiological station and we had quite a few Jews over there. Only two Jews remained: the main epidemiologist and I. All the others were dismissed on grounds of staff reduction. And among them was the head, Rosenshtein, who came to me and said, ‘Anna Matveevna, please write a letter of resignation to free the working place.’ You see, they threw him out because there ‘were no vacancies.’ And my husband also said, ‘Leave your work, you won’t be so nervous anymore.’ Anyway, in 1952 I resigned and didn’t go to work for a couple of years. My husband earned enough, and I didn’t want to suffer from anti-Semitism. When the situation stabilized and changed for the better, I began to work again.

But, to be frank that was the only situation, when I experienced anti-Semitism: never ever, never again did something bad happen to me because I’m a Jew. They never oppressed and never insulted me. I lived in a Russian family, among Russians and worked where there were both Russians and Jews.

And then, thanks to the protection of my husband’s pal Jacob Katznelson – by the way all of Valentin’s friends, are Jews – I started to work at the State Institute of Examination of People’s Working Abilities, in the department in charge of finding jobs for people with special needs. Later the director of the clinic department advised me to write a dissertation. I was interested in people suffering from heart-vascular diseases and chose the topic of ‘Finding a job for people with myocardial infarct’: I studied heart-vascular pathologies, made an experiment on the Kirov factory [one of the largest metallurgical factories in whole country] and completed the dissertation in January 1971.

After I turned 55, I became a part-time employee in a clinic, where I worked till 1981, when we moved to our new apartment. Here I got a part-time job in polyclinic #51; I became a social researcher in the rehabilitation department and worked there for ten years. So far I have quite an impressive work experience.

Since my husband was a famous scientist – he continues to work, and the local papers write articles about him – we didn’t have a bad life, maybe lived in better conditions than many others. First we had a big apartment in the very center, and later, in 1981, we moved to our new three-room apartment, where we still live today. We could afford a trip to the Black Sea or to a sanatorium.

When our son was little, we rented a dacha in Zelenogorsk [small village near Leningrad, on the shore of the Gulf of Finland] and in the late 1980s we got a plot of land. We built a summerhouse there and I grow fruits and vegetables and flowers there too, and that dacha takes up all our free time. In summer we spend weeks over there.

My husband was very keen on his work. Even at home he spent a lot of time writing articles and doing scientific research, but I can’t say that he is a typical scientist, he isn’t lonely, he has many friends and pals. And we were meeting our friends very often, we went to visit them and invited them to our place. I always loved cooking and inventing new dishes. When we gathered with our friends and relatives, we always played cards.

My mother died in 1987 in Leningrad. In her last years she suffered from some heart disease. She was buried in the Jewish cemetery.

As for the changes, I consider that all that happened was very good. I see both the fall of the Berlin Wall and the opening of the Eastern block as positive developments. Life changed completely, in all directions, after 1989. But the most important is that I went to Israel, and that was truly a great event in my life. I learned many new things, talked to people, who live over there. I saw wonderful temples, unique architecture.

I learned how Jews pray, how they spend their time, the way they work and what clothes they wear. I tried some Jewish meals and some fruits, which I had never eaten before. Above all, I was impressed with the Israeli nature. And of course, I compared their lifestyle to ours, and found that our lifestyles are quite a bit different. Unfortunately, we didn’t have enough money for me to go there together with my husband. They invited him too, and he wanted to go.

In principle, I don’t take an active part in the local Jewish community life because of my age and health conditions. I would go to ‘Hesed Abraham’ 26 with great pleasure to attend interesting evenings and meetings, if my health allowed. For example, when I could, I went to the Big Concert Hall ‘Oktyabrsky’ [concert hall in the center of St. Petersburg] for the Jewish New Year, once I went to the Jewish songs concert together with my son and his family. When there is something Jewish on TV, my husband always calls me.

Some time ago I read Golda Meir’s 27 book. She was completely right, I think. She was right that she helped to build the state of Israel, and she changed the attitude toward Israel in the world, due to her activities Israel became stronger and more powerful. But it’s horrible, that they are still fighting. But this Golda was a great woman!

Earlier we didn’t celebrate any Jewish holidays, even though I celebrate all holidays. I celebrate holidays, not paying attention to their meaning or ‘nationality.’ For me it’s just a reason to meet relatives and friends and to cook tasty meals, and to talk and play cards and so on. And now I don’t celebrate Jewish holidays because I don’t know exactly how to celebrate and what to do. But my cousin came some time ago from Israel, and we celebrated Rosh Hashanah together. 

We get food packages and congratulations for the holidays from ‘Hesed Abraham.’ My husband, Valentin Valentinovich, always gets congratulation cards on Victory Day 28, and received a postcard on his 85th birthday.

Did we have any friends among Jews? I have only one friend, Rebecca, while my husband Valentin Valentinovich had many friends, both Jewish and Russian. All my colleagues, with whom I’m in touch, are Russians. We didn’t choose our friends because of the national factor. 

Talking about our relatives, I have frequent contacts with my sisters and cousins. Especially with Nellie, Svetlana, Ludmila and Alya – I write to her, as she lives in Klin [small town 70 kilometers north of Moscow]. I hear less from Inna, who left for Germany. She is from another circle; all her friends and pals are involved mainly in selling goods. 

Of course, I didn’t maintain relations with all my relatives: for example, Aunt Ida, I didn’t like her too much, and we met mainly at funeral ceremonies. But I loved Aunt Laylya [Esther Borisovna Bogorad], Uncle Semen’ wife, very much, more than him, more than her daughters. So, as a matter of fact, I choose friends not because of their age, or nationality, or even family connections, I choose friends because of their spirit. 

  • Glossary:

1 Jewish Pale of Settlement

Certain provinces in the Russian Empire were designated for permanent Jewish residence and the Jewish population was only allowed to live in these areas. The Pale was first established by a decree by Catherine II in 1791. The regulation was in force until the Russian Revolution of 1917, although the limits of the Pale were modified several times. The Pale stretched from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea, and 94% of the total Jewish population of Russia, almost 5 million people, lived there. The overwhelming majority of the Jews lived in the towns and shtetls of the Pale. Certain privileged groups of Jews, such as certain merchants, university graduates and craftsmen working in certain branches, were granted to live outside the borders of the Pale of Settlement permanently.

2 Common name

Russified or Russian first names used by Jews in everyday life and adopted in official documents. The Russification of first names was one of the manifestations of the assimilation of Russian Jews at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. In some cases only the spelling and pronunciation of Jewish names was russified (e.g. Isaac instead of Yitskhak; Boris instead of Borukh), while in other cases traditional Jewish names were replaced by similarly sounding Russian names (e.g. Eugenia instead of Ghita; Yury instead of Yuda). When state anti-Semitism intensified in the USSR at the end of the 1940s, most Jewish parents stopped giving their children traditional Jewish names to avoid discrimination.

3 Russian Revolution of 1917

Revolution in which the tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Empire and, under Lenin, was replaced by the Bolshevik rule. The two phases of the Revolution were: February Revolution, which came about due to food and fuel shortages during World War I, and during which the tsar abdicated and a provisional government took over. The second phase took place in the form of a coup led by Lenin in October/November (October Revolution) and saw the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

4 1905 Russian Revolution

Erupted during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, and was sparked off by a massacre of St. Petersburg workers taking their petitions to the Tsar (Bloody Sunday). The massacre provoked disgust and protest strikes throughout the country: between January and March 1905 over 800,000 people participated in them. Following Russia's defeat in its war with Japan, armed insurrections broke out in the army and the navy (the most publicized in June 1905 aboard the battleship Potemkin). In 1906 a wave of pogroms swept through Russia, directed against Jews and Armenians. The main unrest in 1906 (involving over a million people in the cities, some 2,600 villages and virtually the entire Baltic fleet and some of the land army) was incited by the dissolution of the First State Duma in July. The dissolution of the Second State Duma in June 1907 is considered the definitive end to the revolution.

5 Russian stove

Big stone stove stoked with wood. They were usually built in a corner of the kitchen and served to heat the house and cook food. It had a bench that made a comfortable bed for children and adults in wintertime.

6 Kolkhoz

In the Soviet Union the policy of gradual and voluntary collectivization of agriculture was adopted in 1927 to encourage food production while freeing labor and capital for industrial development. In 1929, with only 4% of farms in kolkhozes, Stalin ordered the confiscation of peasants' land, tools, and animals; the kolkhoz replaced the family farm.

7 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o'clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war. By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

8 Keep in touch with relatives abroad

The authorities could arrest an individual corresponding with his/her relatives abroad and charge him/her with espionage, send them to concentration camp or even sentence them to death.

9 NEP

The so-called New Economic Policy of the Soviet authorities was launched by Lenin in 1921. It meant that private business was allowed on a small scale in order to save the country ruined by the Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War. They allowed priority development of private capital and entrepreneurship. The NEP was gradually abandoned in the 1920s with the introduction of the planned economy.

10 Komsomol

Communist youth political organization created in 1918. The task of the Komsomol was to spread the ideas of communism and involve the worker and peasant youth in building the Soviet Union. The Komsomol also aimed at giving a communist upbringing by involving the worker youth in the political struggle, supplemented by theoretical education. The Komsomol was more popular than the Communist Party because with its aim of education people could accept uninitiated young proletarians, whereas party members had to have at least a minimal political qualification.

11 Civil War (1918-1920)

The Civil War between the Reds (the Bolsheviks) and the Whites (the anti-Bolsheviks), which broke out in early 1918, ravaged Russia until 1920. The Whites represented all shades of anti-communist groups - Russian army units from World War I, led by anti-Bolshevik officers, by anti-Bolshevik volunteers and some Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries. Several of their leaders favored setting up a military dictatorship, but few were outspoken tsarists. Atrocities were committed throughout the Civil War by both sides. The Civil War ended with Bolshevik military victory, thanks to the lack of cooperation among the various White commanders and to the reorganization of the Red forces after Trotsky became commissar for war. It was won, however, only at the price of immense sacrifice; by 1920 Russia was ruined and devastated. In 1920 industrial production was reduced to 14% and agriculture to 50% as compared to 1913.

12 Card system

The food card system regulating the distribution of food and industrial products was introduced in the USSR in 1929 due to extreme deficit of consumer goods and food. The system was cancelled in 1931. In 1941, food cards were reintroduced to keep records, distribute and regulate food supplies to the population. The card system covered main food products such as bread, meat, oil, sugar, salt, cereals, etc. The rations varied depending on which social group one belonged to, and what kind of work one did. Workers in the heavy industry and defense enterprises received a daily ration of 800 g (miners - 1 kg) of bread per person; workers in other industries 600 g. Non-manual workers received 400 or 500 g based on the significance of their enterprise, and children 400 g. However, the card system only covered industrial workers and residents of towns while villagers never had any provisions of this kind. The card system was cancelled in 1947.

13 Great Terror (1934-1938)

During the Great Terror, or Great Purges, which included the notorious show trials of Stalin's former Bolshevik opponents in 1936-1938 and reached its peak in 1937 and 1938, millions of innocent Soviet citizens were sent off to labor camps or killed in prison. The major targets of the Great Terror were communists. Over half of the people who were arrested were members of the party at the time of their arrest. The armed forces, the Communist Party, and the government in general were purged of all allegedly dissident persons; the victims were generally sentenced to death or to long terms of hard labor. Much of the purge was carried out in secret, and only a few cases were tried in public 'show trials'. By the time the terror subsided in 1939, Stalin had managed to bring both the Party and the public to a state of complete submission to his rule. Soviet society was so atomized and the people so fearful of reprisals that mass arrests were no longer necessary. Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union until his death in March 1953.

14 All-Union pioneer organization

A communist organization for teenagers between 10 and 15 years old (cf: boy-/ girlscouts in the US). The organization aimed at educating the young generation in accordance with the communist ideals, preparing pioneers to become members of the Komsomol and later the Communist Party. In the Soviet Union, all teenagers were pioneers.

15 School #

Schools had numbers and not names. It was part of the policy of the state. They were all state schools and were all supposed to be identical.

16 October Revolution Day

October 25 (according to the old calendar), 1917 went down in history as victory day for the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia. This is the most significant date in the history of the USSR. Today the anniversary is celebrated as 'Day of Accord and Reconciliation' on November 7.

17 Mandatory job assignment in the USSR

Graduates of higher educational institutions had to complete a mandatory 2-year job assignment issued by the institution from which they graduated. After finishing this assignment young people were allowed to get employment at their discretion in any town or organization.

18 Stalingrad Battle

17th July 1942 - 2nd February 1943. The Southwestern and Don Fronts stopped the advance of German armies in the vicinity of Stalingrad. On 19th and 20th November 1942 the Soviet troops undertook an offensive and encircled 22 German divisions (330,000 people) and eliminated them. On 31st January 1943 the remains of the 6th German army headed by General Field Marshal Paulus surrendered (91,000 people). The victory in the Stalingrad battle was of huge political, strategic and international significance.

19 Party Schools

They were established after the Revolution of 1917, in different levels, with the purpose of training communist cadres and activists. Subjects such as 'scientific socialism' (Marxist-Leninist Philosophy) and 'political economics' besides various other political disciplines were taught there.

20 Creation of the State of Israel

From 1917 Palestine was a British mandate. Also in 1917 the Balfour Declaration was published, which supported the idea of the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Throughout the interwar period, Jews were migrating to Palestine, which caused the conflict with the local Arabs to escalate. On the other hand, British restrictions on immigration sparked increasing opposition to the mandate powers. Immediately after World War II there were increasing numbers of terrorist attacks designed to force Britain to recognize the right of the Jews to their own state.

These aspirations provoked the hostile reaction of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states. In February 1947 the British foreign minister Ernest Bevin ceded the Palestinian mandate to the UN, which took the decision to divide Palestine into a Jewish section and an Arab section and to create an independent Jewish state. On 14th May 1948 David Ben Gurion proclaimed the creation of the State of Israel. It was recognized immediately by the US and the USSR. On the following day the armies of Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon attacked Israel, starting a war that continued, with intermissions, until the beginning of 1949 and ended in a truce.

21 Dacha

Country house, consisting of small huts and little plots of lands. The Soviet authorities came to the decision to allow this activity to the Soviet people to support themselves. The majority of urban citizens grow vegetables and fruit in their small gardens to make preserves for winter.

22 Nikolai's army

Soldier of the tsarist army during the reign of Nicholas I when the draft lasted for 25 years.

23 Item 5

This was the nationality factor, which was included on all job application forms, Jews, who were considered a separate nationality in the Soviet Union, were not favored in this respect from the end of World War II until the late 1980s.

24 Perestroika (Russian for restructuring)

Soviet economic and social policy of the late 1980s, associated with the name of Soviet politician Mikhail Gorbachev. The term designated the attempts to transform the stagnant, inefficient command economy of the Soviet Union into a decentralized, market-oriented economy. Industrial managers and local government and party officials were granted greater autonomy, and open elections were introduced in an attempt to democratize the Communist Party organization. By 1991, perestroika was declining and was soon eclipsed by the dissolution of the USSR.

25 Doctors’ Plot

The Doctors' Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin's reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

26 Hesed

Meaning care and mercy in Hebrew, Hesed stands for the charity organization founded by Amos Avgar in the early 20th century. Supported by Claims Conference and Joint Hesed helps for Jews in need to have a decent life despite hard economic conditions and encourages development of their self-identity. Hesed provides a number of services aimed at supporting the needs of all, and particularly elderly members of the society.

The major social services include: work in the center facilities (information, advertisement of the center activities, foreign ties and free lease of medical equipment); services at homes (care and help at home, food products delivery, delivery of hot meals, minor repairs); work in the community (clubs, meals together, day-time polyclinic, medical and legal consultations); service for volunteers (training programs).

The Hesed centers have inspired a real revolution in the Jewish life in the FSU countries. People have seen and sensed the rebirth of the Jewish traditions of humanism. Currently over eighty Hesed centers exist in the FSU countries. Their activities cover the Jewish population of over eight hundred settlements.

27 Golda Meir (1898-1978)

Born in Kiev, she moved to Palestine and became a well-known and respected politician who fought for the rights of the Israeli people. In 1948, Meir was appointed Israel's Ambassador to the Soviet Union. From 1969 to 1974 she was Prime Minister of Israel. Despite the Labor Party's victory at the elections in 1974, she resigned in favor of Yitzhak Rabin. She was buried on Mount Herzl in Jerusalem in 1978.

28 Victory Day in Russia (9th May)

National holiday to commemorate the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of World War II and honor the Soviets who died in the war.

Blum Lászlóné

Életrajz

A nagypapát nem ismertem. Az apai nagypapa nevét se tudom. Azt tudom, hogy Bánffyhunyadon éltek, Erdélyben [Bánffyhunyad – nagyközség, Kalotaszeg központja volt Kolozs vm.-ben (szolgabírói székhely, járásbíróság, közjegyzőség), 1891-ben 3700, 1900-ban 4500, 1910-ben 5200 lakossal, jelentős marhavásárokkal. Iskolák: polgári fiúiskola, felső leányiskola. A trianoni békeszerződést követően Romániához került. Lakóinak száma 1920-ban 4900 fő volt. – A szerk.]. Rabbi volt. Az apukámnak az anyját ismertem, Waldmann Hanna volt a neve. Krasznáról származik a nagymama [Kraszna – nagyközség volt Szilágy vm.-ben (járási szolgabírói hivatal, járásbíróság), 1891-ben 3300 lakossal. A trianoni békeszerződést követően Romániához került. – A szerk.]. Az 1870-es években születhetett. Ő mindig [Bánffy]Hunyadon maradt, csak vendégségbe ment Kolozsvárra később hozzánk. Nagyon vallásos asszony volt. Mindig azt mondták neki, hogy a bajmelpiser [A ’bojml’ jiddisül étolajat jelent, a ’pisen’ pedig azt, hogy pisilni. – A szerk.], az azt jelenti, hogy olajat pisilt, olyan vallásos volt. Ezt így mondták jiddisül. Ez a Bábika – így hívtuk őt – mindenkit téríteni akart, hogy vallásos legyen, és a fiatalokat állandóan kritizálta, hogy legyenek vallásosak. Borzasztó volt. Sájtlija volt, mindnyájunkat tanított imádkozni reggel meg délben, mondtuk a bróhékat [lásd: áldások]. Magyarul nem is tudott, csak jiddisül. A holokausztban halt meg szegény, elvitték Auschwitzba. Akkor lehetett úgy hetven éves. Miután meghalt az első férje, az én nagyapám, hozzáment egy sakterhez, de neki sem emlékszem a nevére. Itt laktak, Bánffyhunyadon, saját házat vittek. Nem voltak túl gazdagok, hanem rendes zsidó családnak számítottak, normális körülmények között éltek. A nagymama főzött, volt egy kis segítsége. Az édesanyámat nagyon szerette, volt neki négy menye, és azt hiszem, őt szerette a legjobban. Azért volt nálunk nagyon sokat.

A Lőb nagypapának és a Bábikának négy gyereke volt. A legidősebb, az édesapám volt. Lőb Kálmánnak, héber nevén Zálmánnak hívták, és 1894-ben születhetett Bánffyhunyadon. Utána jött Nátán, mi csak Nóténak hívtuk otthon. Pár évvel volt fiatalabb apukánál. Aztán volt a Cháim és utána a Dávid – Dovid. Mindannyian jártak héderbe, rabbifélék voltak, mind jesivába is jártak Krasznára, sok-sok évet. Az egy nagyon vallásos család volt, és kicsit jobb módúak is voltak, segítették a fiúkat a tanulás ideje alatt. Mindannyian Talmud hóhemek voltak. Más iskolába nem is jártak, csak ide. Kereskedők lettek aztán. Cháimnak lisztesboltja volt, Dovidnak kocsmája meg kiskereskedése, Nátánnak pedig egy kis szatócsboltja. A feleségeik mind háziasszonyok voltak. Nátán feleségét Goldénak hívták, ők [Bánffy]Hunyadon laktak, legalább hét gyerekük volt. Jóban voltunk egymással mint gyerekek, de aztán már nem tartottuk a kapcsolatot. A rokonság nagyon összetartott, amíg normális idők voltak. Ros Hásánákor a templomban együtt voltunk mindig, meg meg voltunk híva egymáshoz sábátkor. Aztán mind elpusztult 1944-ben. Cháimnak volt a felesége Cilla. Neki is sok gyerekük volt. Emlékeszem Hédire, Ráhelre, és volt még több fiú és még legalább két lány. Ezek mind [Bánffy]Hunyadon laktak. Csak Ráhel élte túl a holokausztot. A Dávidnak a felesége Rifka volt. Annak volt szintén négy vagy öt gyereke. Azok nagyon szerencsétlenek voltak. Azt hiszem, az utolsó gyereknél tébécét kapott a feleség meg a férj is, és meg is haltak, és maradtak a gyerekek a nagyszülőkre.

Ez a három család nagyon-nagyon vallásos volt. A férfiaknak mind volt szakálla, pajesze. Strámlit nem hordtak, kaftánt sem, nem voltak haszidok. Biberkalapjuk volt. Amikor nem dolgoztak, állandóan otthon tanultak. Az asszonyok meg parókát hordtak, hosszú ruhát mindig, fekete harisnyát, nyáron is. A férfiak naponta eljártak a zsinagógába, a nők csak nagyünnepeken inkább. Az unokatestvéreim közül a fiúk mind héderbe jártak. Az természetes volt.

Elég sok zsidó volt [Bánffy]Hunyadon. Sok kereskedő volt. Azokat ismertem is, Alberték meg Panethék, ezek gazdagok voltak. A Panethék egyébként egy rabbicsalád volt, eredetileg Désről származtak [lásd: Paneth Ezékiel]. Velük jóban voltunk. Itt, [Bánffy]Hunyadon textillel kereskedtek. A zsidók és a nem zsidók jó kapcsolatban voltak a háború előtt. Nem éreztük azt, hogy mi zsidók vagyunk. A régi Osztrák–Magyar Monarchia idejében nem volt semmi ilyen ellentét.

Miután mi elköltöztünk [Bánffy]Hunyadról, a nagyobb ünnepeken vagy mi utaztunk, vagy ők jöttek hozzánk. De a négy testvér, a fiúk nagyon jól megvoltak egymással. Anyagilag hasonló helyzetűek voltak. Mi voltunk, mondjuk, a legszegényebbek, aztán jöttek a Dávidék. Nátánék Cháimékkal nagyjából egyformák voltak. De mind a négyen nagyon támogatták a nagymamát. „Mama liebé”-nek hívták. Picike asszony volt a nagymama, s a fiúk akkorák voltak, hogy alig fértek be az ajtón. És úgy tisztelték az anyjukat azok a fiúk! Ha a nagymama csak egy szót szólt, arra mind a négy azonnal ugrott. Ő volt a kapitány. A nagymama például ment és ellenőrizte, hogy elég kóser-e a háztartása. Benézett a konyhába is. Nagyon megkritizálta, ha véletlenül az a szivacs nem ott volt, vagy az a rongy nem oda volt téve, a tejes meg a húsos oldalra.

Az anyai oldalon egy egész májsze [jiddis: ’történet, mese’] van, elölről kell kezdeni. Az édesanyám szülei valószínű, hogy a pogromok elől menekültek Palesztinába Oroszországból. Onnan származnak. Ez még valamikor az 1880-as évek elején történhetett. A nagypapa rabbi volt és sakter. Ávrám Jichák Zev Zipnek hívták. Pajesze volt, strájmlit hordott, és kaftánban járt. Palesztinában Jeruzsálemben laktak, később pedig Tibériásban, haszidok voltak. A nagymamát Ráhel Zipnek hívták. Egy gyerekük már volt, a nagynéném, akit úgy hívtak, hogy Szárá Zip. Az anyukám, Rifka Lea Zip Tibériásban született 1896-ban. Az anyukám és a nagynéném között tizenöt év korkülönbség van. A nagynéném mikor tizenhét éves lett, a szülők vissza akartak jönni Európába, a Monarchiába, mert a nagypapának lett egy trachomája [Ún. „egyiptomi szemgyulladás”, gennyes, ragályos idült kötőhártya-gyulladás. – A szerk.], amit ott nem tudtak kezelni. Meg kellett műteni a szemét. A nagynéném semmi esetre sem akart velük jönni, mert ő ott nőtt fel; ő egy nagyon tudós asszony volt. Mit tehettek a zsidó szülők, nem hagyják ott a tizenhét éves lányt, hoztak egy sádhent, és férjhez adták a lányukat egy nagyon szép emberhez, Goldenberg Mórichoz, aki Romániából alijázott Palesztinába.

Jeruzsálemben összeházasodtak, és aztán elköltöztek Alexandriába, Egyiptomba. A nagynéném kitanulta a szülészetet, és Alexandriában szülésznő lett, a férje, a nagybácsi sakter volt. Nagyon jól bevált nekik ez az élet, jómódban voltak. Született egy lányuk és három fiúk. A lányuk, Cipóra avagy Paulina gyönyörű nő volt. És férjhez adták ezt is tizenhat éves korában egy nagyon gazdag emberhez, Nadlerhez, aki csokoládégyáros volt Alexandriában. Ez híres Egyiptomban a mai napig. Mindenki ismerte, aki Egyiptomból jött. Nagyon gazdagok voltak. Volt még három fiuk [Goldenberg Móricékról van szó, azaz az anya nővérének, Szárának a családjáról. – A szerk.], az egyik, Joszef orvos lett, Párizsban tanult, s a másik fiú Cvi volt, a harmadik nevére nem emlékszem.

Az egyik nővérem, Rella járt is a nagynénéméknél, Száráéknál Alexandriában. Volt egy gyönyörű nagy házuk. A szombatot tartották, de utaztak szombaton. Azt mondta Szárá, hogy nem bűn utazni, mert nem ő vezeti a villamost. Modern nő volt. Haja volt, nem hordott parókát. Zsinagógába jártak. Nagy zsidó közösség volt Alexandriában. Sok nyelven beszéltek, spanyolul, arabul. Amikor jött a Nasszer, el kellett menekülniük Egyiptomból [Gamal Abdel Nasszer (1918–1970): egyiptomi politikus, tábornok. A monarchiát 1952-ben megdöntő forradalom vezetője, és az Egyiptomi Köztársaság első elnöke. Arab szocializmus néven nagyszabású gazdasági és társadalmi reformokat kezdeményezett. – A szerk.]. A lányuk elment Irakba. A pénzüket Svájcba és New Yorkba mentették át. A bácsi és a néni is Izraelben halt meg. A zsidó vallás szerint Izraelben kell eltemetve lenni. Ez az 1950-es évek elején történt.

Visszatérve a nagyszülők történetéhez: megházasították Szárát, felültek a hajóra, és visszajöttek Ausztriába vagy Magyarországra [Tulajdonképpen nem „visszajöttek”, hiszen ők Oroszországból mentek Palesztinába. – A szerk.] a kétéves Rifkával. 1898-ben visszatelepedtek Európába. A nagypapa szemét meggyógyították Bécsben vagy akárhol, és akkor jöttek Magyarország felé. Itt is voltak valamilyen rokonok. A nagypapa talált magának egy sakterságot vagy rabbiságot, és a kétéves anyukámék Derecskére költöztek. Az Debrecen mellett egy falu [Derecske – nagyközség volt  Bihar vm.-ben (járási szolgabírói hivatal,  járásbíróság), 1891-ben 8300, 1910-ben 9300 lakossal. – A szerk.]. Anyukámnak innen származik a születési bizonyítványa, mert Palesztinában nem volt még regisztrálva a születési dátum, és mint magyar állampolgár lett ő Derecskén bejelentve. A sors érdekessége az, hogy az édesanyám itt járt iskolába, elvégezte a polgárit is, majd kitanulta a varrást. És amikor tizenhét éves lett, eszükbe jutott a szülőknek, hogy ők már ötven évesek, vissza kell menni a Szentföldre meghalni. Ötvenéves korban már ők öregeknek gondolták magukat. És az édesanyám nem akart velük menni. Hát persze kiházasították. Hívtak egy sádhent, ugyanúgy csinálták, mint a másik lányuknál, és az édesanyámat férjhez adták. Ő itt maradt, és a szülők visszamentek. Leveleztek egymással jiddisül, merthogy ők csak jiddisül beszéltek otthon is. Az anyukám jiddisül tudott írni is, olvasni is. De ő magyarul is perfekt volt.

Az édesanyám tudott imádkozni rendesen, egynyelvű héber imakönyvet használt. Nagyon vallásosan nevelték, de ő már nem volt fanatikus. Neki már volt világi nevelése is. Ő már nem akart ilyen környezetben élni. A nagymama mégis azt akarta, ha férjhez adják, nagyon vallásos emberhez adják. Az volt a legfontosabb, hogy vallásos legyen, akihez hozzáadják. Talán még azt is nézték, hogy tanult legyen a Talmudban. Szegény anyukát férjhez adták, és ők elmentek. Az édesanyám akkor látta apámat először, amikor az esküvő volt. Ekkor ez volt a szokás. [Bánffy]Hunyadon volt az esküvő 1912-ben [lásd: házasság, esküvői szertartás]. Ez a házasság elég tragédia volt az édesanyám életében. Hiszen ő egy modern nő volt, az édesapám pedig egy kis melamed. Tanító volt, aki kisgyerekeket tanított a héderben. Nagyon pici fizetése volt, és jöttek a gyerekek egyre-másra. S nem volt miből megélni, az édesanyám elő kellett vegye a varrástudományát. Az apám olyan ember volt, aki tényleg csak a tanulásnak meg a vallásnak adta magát, a család, azt a jó Isten megsegíti – mondogatta. Állandóan tanult, amikor otthon volt. Talmudot tanult, Rásit olvasott, és persze a Hümest is mindig tanulmányozta. Amikor tanult, nem lehetett szólni hozzá. Akkor azt tiszteletben kellett tartani. Arra is emlékszem, amikor a legkisebb öcsém hazajött a héderből, akkor kihallgatta minden szombaton a szidrát, és magyaráztatta is meg minden. Arra is emlékszem, hogy le is kellett neki fordítania héberről jiddisre. Otthon anyukámmal magyarul beszéltünk, apukámmal csakis jiddisül, nem is tudom, hogy ő tudott-e egyáltalán magyarul. A szülők is jiddisül beszéltek egymással.

Anyukámnak nagyon sokat kellett dolgoznia. Tudom mint felnövő gyerek, mindig éjjel dolgozott, én is vele virrasztottam. De betartotta a vallási előírásokat, szabályokat, szóval nem volt köztük feszültség, ő mindent úgy csinált, ahogy azt elvárták tőle. Abban az időben nem volt úgy, hogy elválunk, ha nem tetszik valami. Akkor az volt, hogy férjhez ment, egy életre szól egy házasság, az egy szentség. Anyuka azt akarta, hogy a gyerekek tanuljanak, mert ugye ezek a vallásosak-fanatikusak nem voltak azon, hogy tanuljanak világi dolgokat. Őket csak a vallási tanulmányok érdekelték. De anyuka azt akarta, hogy minden gyerek tanuljon, legyen szakmája, és azért dolgozott éjjel-nappal, hogy rendesen öltözzünk, tanulni tudjunk. Még zongorázni is taníttatott minket. Varrt a tanároknak, és ennek fejében tanulhattunk mindenfélét.

Hat testvérem volt. A legidősebbet úgy hívták, hogy Paula Ráhel, ő 1913-ban született Bánffyhunyadon. Ott is járt iskolába. Nagyon szorgalmas, nagyon rendes lány volt. Itt most el kell meséljek egy másik történetet is közben. Az anyukám elutazott 1927-től 1929-ig Palesztinába [Mint a későbbiekben kiderül, Alexandriában töltötte ezt a két évet a nővérénél. – A szerk.], s akkor mi otthon maradtunk. Ekkor már hatan voltunk gyerekek, és ő volt a legidősebb, nagyon sok dolgot kellett csinálnia, és neki segített sokat a következő testvérem, Rella. Paula nagyon nem szeretette apám anyját, a Bábikát, akire rábíztak minket, és aki erre az időre be is költözött hozzánk. S Paula elment a Dovidékhez, apám testvéréhez, akik Stănán [Az egykori Szilágy vm.-ben lévő Felsőnyárló község román neve. – A szerk.] laktak, és volt egy üzletük, és segített nekik az üzletben meg otthon is. Szegény következő nővéremet, Rellát úgy fogta be a nagymama, hogy még iskolába sem járhatott. Mesélte később, hogy megszökött az iskolába éjjel. Nagyon jó tanuló volt, és nem volt hajlandó kimaradni, de apukánk akkor sem tett semmit, csak tanult és imádkozott, mindent ráhagyott a Bábikára.

Visszatérve Paulára, amikor anyukám visszajött 1929-ben, akkor haza akarta hozni onnan a családból, és látta, hogy ez a lány beteg. Vizsgálták jobbra-balra, és kiderült, hogy tébécés. Lett egy kavernája, és tíz évig kínlódott evvel a betegséggel, szanatóriumba be, szanatóriumból ki. Volt egy tüdőszanatórium Kolozsváron, fent valahol a hegyen, s én vittem neki, emlékszem, mindig ételt. Sőt megengedték, hogy szalonnát is egyen. Azt mondták, hogy jó a tüdőnek, és eltekintettek ebben az esetben a kóserségtől. 1940-ben halt meg. Nagy csapás volt számunkra. Zsidó temetése volt. Apuka mondta utána a kádist, és ültünk hét napot [lásd: gyász, süve], és jöttek látogatóba, és nem volt szabad főzni, a szomszédok hoztak ételt. Csak annyit mondhatok, a legdrágább, a legjobb ember volt ez a Paula. Csupa báj, csupa kellem, jószívű.

A következő testvérem volt a Rella, ő 1917-ben született. Vele vagyok a legszorosabb kapcsolatban a mai napig. Ott járt elemibe [Bánffy]Hunyadon. Miután befejezte az elemi iskolát, Kolozsváron a Tarbutban [lásd: Tarbut Kolozsváron] tanult. Tizenhat éves koráig tanult, és utána ki akarta tanulni a fűzős szakmát, de egy évig volt egy üzletben, ahol fűzőket csináltak meg eladtak meg minden, s nem ültették a géphez, csak kifutó volt, be kellett hogy vásároljon a főnökasszonynak, és úgy döntött, hogy ő ezt tovább nem csinálja. És akkor anyukától megtanult varrni. Varrt pár évig, és akkor elment egy műhelybe praktizálni. Rella a Mizrachiba járt akkor, meg már előtte is. Nagyon aktív volt, és csapatvezető lett. A mozgalomban élt, még egyszer táborban is volt, ami igazán nagy dolog volt ekkoriban.

Amikor anyuka hazajött Egyiptomból, mondta, hogy ha az egész családot nem is tudja kivinni, de Rellának szerzett egy kapcsolatot. Egy nővel megbeszélte, akinek kézimunkaüzlete volt Jeruzsálemben, hogy küld neki egy meghívólevelet, mert akkoriban csak úgy nem lehetett bemenni. És tényleg, elküldte a certificate-et [angol: igazolás], és Rella ki is ment 1935-ben teljesen legálisan. Először egy hónapot töltött Egyiptomban, és utána ment Jeruzsálembe, és ennél a nőnél lakott egypár hónapig, de ez egy nagyon vallásos nő volt. Írta, szegény, mindig, hogy mennyire rosszul érzi ott magát. Szerencsére ez a nő özvegy volt, és közbe sádhenoltak neki, és férjhez ment egy rabbihoz, s akkor már nem maradhatott nála tovább. Akkor bérelt magának egy szobát, vett egy Singer varrógépet részletre, és varrt. Megismerkedett a leendő férjével, egy magyar férfival, Bilitzer Sándorral, és 1937-ben megtartották Jeruzsálemben az esküvőt. Írt nekünk levelet, és küldött egy képet is, amin tett egy kalapot magára, hogy lássák itthon, hogy vallásos. Pedig akkor már nem is volt vallásos egyáltalán, csak apukát akarta megnyugtatni.

Rella férje debreceni vallásos családból származott, és orvosnak tanult Bécsben, de miután kiment Palesztinába, kitanulta a vízvezeték-szerelést. Kislányuk született 1945-ben, Ruti. Hathetes volt a gyerek, amikor Rella férje gondolkodás nélkül, igazi hazaszeretetből bevonult a Zsidó Brigádba, és ott volt vagy öt évig. Védte a hazát, kivívta a függetlenségét [A független Izrael állam 1948-ban jött létre. – A szerk.].  Azt tudom, hogy 1945-ben mint katona átjött Budapestre félig illegálisan, egy angol repülőgépen, hogy megnézze, ki maradt életben a családjából. Mert nem tudtunk akkor még semmit az itt maradottakról. Itt találta az egyik húgát, aki kommunista volt, és hamis papírokkal bujkált a háborúban. Ő intézte a papírjaikat, és küldte ki nekik, hogy megkapják a beutazási engedélyt Magyarországra. 1951-ben visszajöttek, azóta ők itt élnek. Akkor már két lányuk volt, mert időközben megszületett a Kati is. Rella bölcsődékben dolgozott, intézményvezető is volt hosszú éveken keresztül. Sándor már meghalt. Ha hazalátogatok, mindig Rellánál lakom. Azt hiszem, nem bánták meg, hogy hazatelepültek, bár ezt azért nem lehet egyértelműen mondani.

A két lánytestvérem után jött ez első fiú, a Cvi, magyar nevén Herman. Ő 1918-ban született. Cvi nagyon vallásos volt. Héderbe járt. Aztán anyukánk ragaszkodott hozzá, hogy szakmát tanuljon, így tanulta ki a trikotázs szakmát, szóval a kötést. És aztán dolgozott egy olyan üzemben. Őneki volt pajesza gyerekkorában, és ciceszt is kellett hordjon. Így élt Kolozsváron, majd 1938-ban elhatározta, hogy elhagyja az országot. Már akkor jöttek a románok, a vasgárdisták [lásd: Vasgárda] Kolozsvárra, felégették a templomokat, összetörték a zsidó boltokat. Cvi azt mondta akkor, hogy ő elhagyja az országot. Persze nem lehetett menni Palesztinába [lásd: brit mandátum Palesztinában], az angolok uralkodtak, nem engedték be, és akkor illegálisan elment, és valahogy 1939-ban megérkezett Rodoszba. Azt hiszem, Törökországon keresztül ment. És akkor kijutott Izraelbe [Palesztinába]. Akkor még nőtlen volt, Izraelben nősült 1939-ben, pesti lányt vett el, Dórit. A családban engem hívtunk aztán Dórának, őt pedig Dórinak. Sajnos a lánykori vezetéknevére most nem emlékszem, de nagyon jóban voltunk és vagyunk is. Rella ott volt az esküvőjükön, de mi még mindannyian Kolozsváron éltünk akkor. Én velük már csak a Soá után találkoztam, kint, Izraelben. Herman elhagyta a vallást, aztán később megint visszatért hozzá. Most megint nagyon vallásos ember. Modern vallásos ember. Horgolt kipája van. Netanján laknak. Két gyerekük van, egy fiú és egy lány. A lány nagyon vallásos, igazi ortodox, nyolc gyereke van. A fiú kevésbé, neki három gyereke van. Szorosan tartom velük a kapcsolatot.

A következő testvér a Patyu volt, Lőb Márton, a zsidó neve Mordecháj volt. Ő 1920-ban született. Ő is pajeszos volt, vallásosnak volt nevelve. Aztán kijött a vallásból. Ő volt az otthon, aki megmondta apukának a véleményét. Meg is verték többször. A Cvi, a másik bátyám, neki volt esze, úgyhogy ő nem mondta meg, hogy mit csinál szombaton. Azt mondta, hogy a sálom [az otthoni béke] végett, amit elvártak tőle. De Patyu olyan volt, hogy nem tudott hazudni, megmondta az igazat, szegényt annyiszor megverték, de nagyon jó fiú volt. Emlékszem, hogy elment valahová nyaralni, és hazaírta, hogy „csókolom a drága anyukát, a kicsi Mártonka csókolja”. Ilyen szeretet volt benne. Ő üvegcsiszoló lett, és otthon lakott tizennyolc-tizenkilenc éves koráig. 1938-ban bevonult mint katona, és aztán ott munkaszolgálatos lett. Először Hódmezővásárhelyre ment, és a végén hallottuk, hogy Borban volt, Jugoszláviában [lásd: bori rézbányák]. Olyan fiú volt, hogy meg tudott élni a jég hátán is. Hallottuk azután, hogy vitték őket 1944-ben gyalog Pestre, és onnan akarták vinni Auschwitzba [Randolph L. Braham írja, hogy a németek 1944. szeptember közepén döntöttek Bor és környéke kiürítéséről. Az evakuált zsidók első csoportja (kb. 3600 fő) szeptember 17-én indult el Borból, a második csoport (2500 ember) két nappal később. Embertelen körülmények között hajtották őket Szentkirályszabadjára (Veszprém vm.) (útközben több száz embert legyilkoltak), ahonnan a flossenburgi, a sachsenhauseni vagy az oranienburgi, a második csoport életben maradt tagjait  pedig a buchenwaldi és a flossenburgi koncentrációs táborba deportálták (A magyar Holocaust, Budapest, Gondolat/Wilmington, Blackburn International Inc., é. n. /1988/). – A szerk.]. Ő megszökött, illetve meg akart szökni, és lelőtték. Ezt hallottuk kolozsváriaktól, akik ismerték őt.

A következő testvér a Helén volt, Sulámit héberül. 1923-ban született. Ő volt hozzám a legközelebb, mert köztünk nem volt túl nagy korkülönbség. Nagyon gyenge idegzetű volt. Mi együtt voltunk a holokausztban egy ideig.

Ezután született meg a kicsike öccsünk, Izsák Zév, magyarul Vilmos volt. 1930-ban született. Az a kisfiú olyan gyönyörű volt, hogy azt gondolták, hogy kislány, mindenki megcsodálta. Mondtam neki, mikor hazajött az iskolából. Az utcán olvasott könyveket, bement a vécébe, hogy apuka ne lássa, és ott is olvasott. Mindenféle könyveket olvasott. Elmúlt bár micvó, a drága, kicsi, gyönyörű öcsém tizenhárom és fél éves volt, amikor deportálták. Egy kaptafára vittek a nyilasok a németekkel kollaborálva, és persze a bal oldalra vitték. És a szülőket is [lásd: szelektálás]. Mind azonnal elpusztult. Nem tudok erről többet beszélni.

Én 1926-ban születtem, még [Bánffy]Hunyadon. Anyuka 1927-től 1929-ig Egyiptomban volt. Még élt az anyja Jeruzsálemben; a nagypapa hamarabb meghalt. És élt a nővére, Szárá, ott lakott Alexandriában, és ők meghívták, és ott volt két évig. Én nagyon kicsi voltam, amikor elment, úgyhogy nem emlékszem erre, mint ahogy arra sem, hogy milyen gyakran írt nekünk. Gondolom, azért időnként leveleztek apukával. Az biztos, hogyha írtak, akkor jiddisül csakis. Kint is jiddisül beszéltek a rokonok egymással. Anyuka tudott varrni, de ez volt az ő balsorsa talán. Első nap, mikor megérkezett Egyiptomba, már egy csomó munkát szereztek neki, és két évig ott varrhatott, de hogy pénzt adjanak, amiért eredetileg ment, hogy kihozza a családot, hogy segítséget szerezzen vagy kölcsönt, olyanról szó se lehetett, hanem hogy ő keresse meg. Mit lehetett megkeresni varrásból, annyit, hogy hat gyereket ki lehessen vinni?! Szegény varrt, varrt, és két év után az édesapám megunta, hogy már nincs itthon, és írt neki, hogy jöjjön haza, mert már a nagymama nem bírja, és ez így nem megy tovább. Ő letette a tűt, mindent, egyik napról a másikra otthagyott mindent, megint levágatta a haját, és hazajött. Aztán folytatódott az élet úgy, ahogy azelőtt volt.

Mikor az anyukánk hazajött Palesztinából, 1929-ben elköltöztünk Kolozsvárra, egy kicsit mégiscsak kulturáltabb környezetbe. A gyerekeit másképp akarta ő nevelni, mint ott a faluban. Több lehetőség volt Kolozsváron mégis. Kolozsvár volt a fővárosa Erdélynek mindig. Kolozsvár cionista város volt, és nagyon-nagyon kulturális. Volt magyar színház, opera és egyetem – ez egy nagy dolog volt –, bibliotékák és klinikák voltak, botanikus kert. Gyönyörű szép város volt valamikor. Anyuka eljárt a színházba, apuka persze sosem ment vele. De anyuka természetesen parókában járt ki, otthon pedig kendőt kötött. Egyetlen egyszer növesztette meg a haját, mikor Egyiptomban volt. Szegény, ott egy kicsit felszabadultabban élhetett.

Apuka, mikor Kolozsvárra költöztünk, nem tudott melamedként dolgozni tovább, így elment a közeli zsinagógába gábájnak, zsinagógai mindenesnek. Így aztán egész nap bent volt a templomban, és naponta kétszer imádkozott. Sameszi feladatokat is ellátott. Emlékszem, hogy anyukám küldött mindig a templomba, hogy adjon pénzt apuka. Ez egy ortodox templom volt, egy igazán vallásos. Középen volt a bimá. Volt egy külön kis karzat a nőknek [Az ortodox zsinagógában a nők nem vegyülhetnek a férfiak közé, különválasztott hely  (sokszor ráccsal vagy függönnyel is ellátott karzat) van számukra fenntartva. – A szerk.]. Én nem mentem csak ünnepekkor, anyukámmal.

Kolozsvárott a ház, amiben laktunk, az Árpád úton volt. Nem volt fürdőszobánk és vécénk sem a lakásban. Teknőben fürödtünk. Két szoba volt s egy nagy konyha, abban volt a varroda, és volt egy spanyolfal, ahol próbáltak, akik jöttek anyukához ruhát csináltatni. A konyhában volt egy olyan asztal, amit ki lehetett nyitni, ott szabott anyuka. Volt egy dívány a konyhában, amit ki lehetett nyitni, és voltak szalmazsákok. Azon aludtunk, egymás hegyén-hátán. Az egyik szoba ki volt adva nagyobb részben, mert kellett a pénz.

Héber óvodába, majd iskolába jártam Kolozsváron [A kolozsvári héber óvoda a neológ hitközség óvodája volt, amely az 1910-es évek végén jött létre, és a deportálásokig, azaz 1944-ig működött. A héber iskola a hitközség hétosztályos elemi iskolája volt. A neológ és az ortodox hitközségnek is volt ilyen iskolája Kolozsváron. Az elemi iskola is 1944-ig működött. – A szerk.]. Persze románul tanultunk ott is. Volt hittanóra, és megtanultuk az egész históriát [a zsidó nép történetét]. Azt magyarul, nem is tudom már, miért. Románul az iskolában kellett tanulni, de különben otthon és az egész társaságban mindig magyarul beszéltünk. Persze a zsidó iskolában tanultunk németül. Ami meghatározta a gyerekkoromat, hogy Kolozsvár egy nagyon cionista város volt. Anyukám azt akarta mindig, hogy az összes gyerekek menjenek ki Izraelbe [Palesztinába]. De apuka hallani sem akart róla. A rabbik azt mondták, hogy nem elég vallásos az élet ott, és hogy nem a messiás hozta létre az új településeket. Ilyen marhaságot! De a rabbiknak nagy tekintélyük volt, fanatikusan követték őket. Mi már az iskolában az első osztályból be voltunk szervezve a cionista mozgalomba. Bekerültem az első osztálytól a Hanoár Hacioni mozgalomba [lásd: Hanoár Hacioni Romániában]. Minden héten vagy kétszer-háromszor voltak gyűlések. Nagyon sok mindent tanultam ott, könyvekről beszélgettünk. Emlékszem Bialik-verseket fordítottak nekünk [Cháim Nahman Bialik (1873–1934): orosz zsidó költő, aki főleg héber nyelven írt regényeket, vidám dalokat és vázlatokat. 1924-ben Tel-Avivba költözött, és könyvkiadót alapított. Mind könyvkiadóként, mind saját műveiben a hászkála, a zsidó felvilágosodás eszméjét igyekezett terjeszteni. – A szerk.]. Palesztináról volt szó, énekeltünk, arra vágytunk csak, hogy tudjunk indulni Izraelbe.

Persze apuka nem tudhatta, mert ez nem volt vallásos mozgalom. A nővérem, Rella járt még a Mizrachiba, az vallásos csoport volt. Amikor befejeztünk négy osztályt, mentünk a Tarbutba [lásd: Tarbut Kolozsváron]. Ez egy nagyon jó iskola volt. Kolozsváron sok zsidó lakott nagyon, nem tudom pontosan, mennyi, de azt tudom, hogy volt neológ és ortodox hitközség is. Mi az ortodoxhoz tartoztunk, de a neológ iskolába járhattunk. Otthon mindvégig ortodox kislányok maradtunk. Apukám például nem engedte volna, hogy rövidben járjunk, de mi jártunk. Azért, mert anyuka azt mondta neki, hogy „Apuka, te nem adsz elég pénzt, nincs elég pénzem, hogy csináljak nekik hosszút”. Apukám nem engedte, hogy magyar könyveket olvassunk, mert az gój dolog. De persze mi olvastunk állandóan. Anyukámnak megvolt Jókai Mórtól a „Fekete vár” [1892-ben megjelent regény. – A szerk.], Pestről jött nekünk a „Színházi Élet” [„Színházi Élet” – 1912 és 1938 között megjelent népszerű képes hetilap volt sok színes tudósítással a korabeli színházi és filmvilág életéről. Olykor egy-egy bemutatott színdarab szövegét is közölte. Incze Sándor alapította és szerkesztette Harsányi Zsolttal közösen. – A szerk.], a „Délibáb” [A Tolnai Lapkiadó képes hetilapja volt (színház, film, illusztrált rádióműsor) 1927–1944 között, Tolnai Simon, Paizs Géza, Bibó Lajos és Tolnai Sándor szerkesztésében. – A szerk.], a „Képes Krónika” [1919-ben indult katolikus –szépirodalmi, művészeti és társadalmi –¬ hetilap, a Központi Sajtóvállalat adta ki, Zigány Árpád szerkesztette. – A szerk.]. Mi nagyon felvilágosultak voltunk mindenről anyukám révén, úgy nevelt bennünket. Apukám persze mindezekről nem is tudhatott, de nem volt nehéz eltitkolni, mert úgyis mindig csak a tanulmányaira meg az imákra figyelt.

Volt egyszer egy eset, jártam a mozgalomba, s mentem az utcán, fiúkkal jártunk, diskuráltunk, s apukám jött, és meglátott engem két fiúval. Esküszöm, emlékszem, hogy adott egy olyan pofont, mint annak a rendje. Egy másikra is emlékszem, amikor jött ez a nagyanya Bánffyhunyadról Pészahkor, ott volt nálunk, és volt a mozgalomban egy nagy váádá [héber: ’értekezlet’]. A apukám megtudta egy másik lánytól ezt. Az összes barátnőm, majdnem mindegyik vallásos családból volt, de jártak ide is. De az apák általában nem tudták. S akkor megtudta az egyik lánynak az apja, hogy mi odajárunk a mozgalomba, emlékszem, eljött hozzánk, s keresett bennünket, s olyan verést kaptunk, mint annak a rendje. De aztán jártunk tovább.

Nagyon jó volt ez a társaság a mozgalomban, sokat tanultunk. Vitatkoztunk, de persze a legfőbb dolog volt, hogy jönni Izraelbe [Palesztinába]. Sokat énekeltünk, amikor lágerbe kerültem, avval felbuzdítottam az ezer lányt, hogy túl kell éljük, ami van, mert utána jó lesz: „Izrael dalra fel, bizalommal szálljon az ének. El ne hagyd most magad, boldog lesz még az élet, fölvirrad hajnalod, addig élsz, míg szíved remélhet, Izrael, dalra fel, boldog lesz itt még az élet.” A másik az volt: „Ne búsulj, ne sírjál, bús Izrael, elmúlik ez az élet. Büszkén viseld el ezt az időt, lesznek még szép napok.” Szóval ez tartott fenn engem, hogy muszáj megérkezzek Izraelbe, mert ez volt gyerekkorban is, anyukánk erre nevelt: Muszáj megérkezni Jeruzsálembe.

Emlékszem, hogy Stănán voltam nyaralni a zsidó iskolával a Margit-villában. Az egész négy elemivel elmentünk oda nyaralni. Egy gyönyörű szép hely volt. És az éneket sose fogom elfelejteni, midőn hazajöttünk, mit énekeltünk. Hogy „Közeleg az idő hazatérésre, itt hagyjuk a Margit-villát örökre. Az erdő fái búsulnak, hogy nem hallják többé a gyermekzajt. Közeleg az idő hazatérésre, itt hagyjuk a Margit-villát örökre”.
 
Azért mindezek ellenére az ünnepeket nagyon szerettem. A péntek este volt az egyik legkedvesebb ünnepem. Apuka elment a templomba a fiúkkal. Persze apám minden nap ment zsinagógába kétszer is. Apám szombaton kikérdezett minket, bár minket, lányokat ritkábban, a fiúkat szinte minden héten. Kellett imádkoznunk minden reggel, csak nem mindig tudtuk, mit imádkozunk. Meg kellett áldani a kenyeret meg mindent. Kellett étkezés előtt és után és kézmosáskor. És arra is emlékszem, hogy ha valami friss [primőr] gyümölcsöt ettünk, arra is imádkoztunk [lásd: áldások (étkezéshez kapcsolódóan)]. Ezeket anyuka is betartotta, ezek szokások voltak.

Amíg a férfiak a templomban voltak, anyuka elkészült. Anyuka nagyon sokat dolgozott, kellett segítsünk. Hal volt és húsleves és hús, kompót, minden volt. És persze imádkoztunk az asztalnál is. És péntek este mi mindig magyarul beszéltünk, s apukám azt mondta zsidóul, hogy „lekóved sábesz kajdes, recitíren kinderlekh” [jiddis: a szent szombat tiszteletére elmondják a gyerekek… – A szerk.]. Mi, amikor ettünk, a könyveket eldugtuk, s olvastunk magyarul, de hogy apukám ne lássa, az asztal alatt. Aztán énekeltünk péntek este zmireszeket. Ezeket nagyon-nagyon szerettem. Volt egy ének, a kállói rabbi megengedte, hogy magyarul is lehessen énekelni; ez volt a „Szól a kakas már”: „Szól a kakas már, majd megvirrad már, zöld erdőben, sík mezőben sétál egy madár.  De micsoda madár, zöld a szárnya. Zöld a szárnya. Kék a  szárnya, engem mindig odavár.” Ez volt a vágyakozás Izráel után. Ez az érdekes, hogy az összes imákban benne volt a Cion utáni vágyakozás, hogy vissza kell térni Izráelbe. Azt mindig imádkozták, s közben a rabbi lebeszélte a családokat, hogy kimenjenek. Meg tudtak volna menteni csomó zsidót, hogyha másképp állnak hozzá.

Visszatérve a szombathoz, anyuka mindig gyújtott gyertyát [péntek este], annyit, ahány gyerek volt, és két gyertyát gyújtott a halottak után. Másnap [szombaton] nem lehetett főzni, ezért sólet volt, amit már pénteken elvittünk egy pékhez. Akkor mindig volt ejer mit cvibel, tojásos hagyma [Tojásos hagyma (cibel vagy ejer-cibel) – kemény tojás villával összetörve, annyi liba- vagy kacsazsírral, hogy kenhető legyen. Egy nagyobb vöröshagymát reszeltek bele, és megsózták, esetleg pirospaprikát is kevertek bele. Lehetett dúsítani maradék kacsa- vagy libamájjal vagy főtt krumplival. – A szerk.]. Anyuka egy időben sütött kenyeret és bárheszt is. Nagyon finom volt. A húst a kóser mészárszékben vásároltuk. A tejet hozták haza, szintén kósert, kannákban. De mindig volt egy kislányka, aki nálunk dolgozott, segített például bevásárolni és takarítani. Kellett ilyen segítség, mert anyukám dolgozott – reggeltől estig. Sokszor már majdnem beállt, emlékszem, a péntek, és az utolsó pillanatban kellett mindent megcsinálnia, hogy készen legyen.

Az egyébként nagyon jellemző volt, hogy sábeszkor meg ünnepekkor, akármilyen szegény család voltunk is, kellett az asztalra kalács, bor meg a legjobb ételekből. Egész héten nagyon nehezen voltunk, bableves volt meg köles, lencse, krumpli, de ünnepkor nem lehetett érezni, hogy én szegény vagyok vagy gazdag. És mindig volt egy szegény, akit meghívtunk az asztalhoz. Apuka a templomból hozta, akinek nincs otthona vagy özvegy, és mindig jöttek jesiva bóherek. Volt minden héten egyszer, róluk mondták, hogy teget [napokat] esznek. Ez azt jelentette, hogy a tanulmányaik alatt minden nap másnál ebédeltek.

Szükeszkor [Szukot] mindig töltött káposzta volt [Természetesen nem sertés-, hanem marha- és libahússal készítették. – A szerk.]. Csináltunk szép sátort [szukát] az udvaron. Ros Hásánákor mindannyiunknak kellett menni a templomba, kellett imádkozni. Jom Kipurkor mindenki böjtölt, nekünk, lányoknak tizenkét éves kortól kellett, a fiúknak pedig a bár micvójuk utántól. Hanukakor apuka gyújtotta a gyertyákat, és mi trenderlivel játszottunk. Ha jöttek a rokonok, kaptunk hanuka-geltet [hanuka-pénzt], de ez igazán nagyon kevés pénz volt, de azt a keveset édességekre költöttük.

A Pészah volt az egyik legfontosabb ünnepünk. Pészahkor kaptunk mindig ajándékot, kellett minden új. Ilyenkor kaptunk mindig új ruhát, cipőt. Húsvétkor cipőt is kaptunk. Rellának, a nővéremnek van egy története, olyan tizenkét éves lehetett, amikor az anyukám adott pénzt, s elküldte, hogy vegyen a négy testvérének cipőt. Egy kis retikül volt nála. Kiválasztotta, ami kellett, felpróbáltuk mindannyian, s amikor ki akarta fizetni, nem találta a táskáját. A pénzt a táskával együtt elvitte valaki. El lehet képzelni, hogy milyen helyzetbe került szegény, se pénz, se cipő, egy ilyen szegény családban ez borzasztó volt. Egy kicsivel később a szomszédok, akik ott voltak szintén a boltban, hazamentek hozzánk, és elmondták a szüleinknek, hogy mi történt. Hogy Rella nem tehet róla. És mire mi öten hazamentünk, már nem volt haragvás, meg sem vertek bennünket. Még a ruházkodásról mesélve: anyukám varrt, éjjelenként varrta meg a családnak a ruháit. De mindig új ruhánk, új cipőnk volt. Mi nagyon-nagyon szegények voltunk, de ez nem látszott rajtunk soha.

Emlékszem egy pészahi történetre, amit Rella nővérem mesélt nekem sokszor. Még [Bánffy]Hunyadon éltünk – ez abban az évben történt, amikor az anyuka Egyiptomban volt –, a Bábika leküldte Rellát a patakhoz, hideg március volt még, hogy lesúrolja a gyúrótáblát meg a teknőket, amiben kenyeret sütöttük, hogy ne maradjon semmi homec a házban [lásd: homecolás]. Amikor visszajött szegény, majdnem meg volt teljesen fagyva. Napokig nem tudta használni a kezeit.

Amire már én magam is emlékszem a pészahi készülődésekből, hogy mindig volt nagytakarítás, úgy, hogy az egész lakást, mintha festettünk volna, rendeztük. Kipakoltunk az udvarba minden bútort, minden fiókot ki kellett súrolni, minden sarkot, hogy ne maradjon homec, ne maradjon kenyérmorzsa sehol. A szalmazsákokat újratöltöttük. Volt külön edény a padláson egy ládában elpakolva, minden külön. Az nagyon szép volt; a húsvéti edény cserépből volt. Amúgy általában gránittányérok voltak, úgy emlékszem, meg fazekak meg mindenfélék. Szédereste apuka kitlibe öltözött, meg párnákkal volt kibélelve a széke, amin ült. Ezek kellettek a támaszkodásra. És megvolt a macesz, és külön neki a smire macesz, apukám csak azt evett. Ezt a templomból hozta magának. Olvasta a Hágádát szépen, és magyarázta mindig. A legkisebb fiú pedig mondta a má nistánát. És aztán jött a húsleves, a pohár borok szépen sorban. Emlékszem, hogy a Hágádá le volt fordítva magyarra, apám vette két fillérért. De ő persze jiddisül magyarázott, és olvasta a lósn koydest [jiddis: szent nyelv, azaz héber], mert ő azt is kitűnően ismerte. Mindig voltak vendégek is széderestére.

A második világháború kitörése előtt nekem nem volt semmi zsidógyűlölettel kapcsolatos élményem A Cvi bátyámnak volt, de én nem éreztem egész idő alatt semmit. Nem számított, hogy az ember magyarul, románul vagy jiddisül beszél-e. Nagyon jó volt a kapcsolat a nem zsidókkal. Két udvar volt, ahol laktunk az Árpád utca 65. szám alatt, a fele nem volt zsidó, a fele zsidó volt, de a legnagyobb harmóniában éltünk. Nem volt semmi probléma, amíg nem jöttek be a magyarok 1940-ben. Mindenki beszélt akkor is románul, magyarul, hisz akkor is Erdély volt azért.

1940-ben bejöttek a magyarok Erdélybe [lásd: második bécsi döntés]. Nagy felvonulások voltak. Az én szüleim azt gondolták, hogy azok a magyarok fognak bejönni, akik voltak a Ferenc József idejében; hogy a régi Monarchia lesz, ami nagyon liberális volt, és ahol adtak jogokat mindenkinek, zsidóknak, nagyon jó élet volt. Mindenkinek olyan jogokat adtak, mint a saját népüknek. És örömmel várták, hogy jöjjenek be a magyarok. De sajnos pont az ellenkezője történt. Ahogy bejöttek, rá egypár napra apukám bement egy trafikba, cigarettát akart vásárolni, és mondta annak a nőnek, aki árult, hogy szegény Munteanut is elvitték, pedig rendes ember volt. Mivel apukám vallásos ember volt, meg lehetett ismerni, hogy zsidó. Ez a Munteanu fakereskedő volt, és apám jóban volt vele. Megtörtént tehát ebben az időben, hogy aki nem volt magyar származású, azt a magyarok elhurcolták. És véletlenül ott volt egy magyar szakaszvezető civilben, és miután apukám ezt mondta, kivitte apukámat, és toszogatta a Szamos mellett, mert mi ott laktunk a közelben. Az udvaron, ahol laktunk, volt egy mészáros, az rögtön bejött anyukához, és azt mondta, „Lőb néni, szaladjon, mert viszik az urát”. Én kislány voltam, rögtön szaladtam anyu után, és láttam, hogy viszik a Szamos mögé, és szaladtam utána. Mivel anyukám nagyon bátor asszony volt, ment apukám után, és mondta: „Mondja, kérem, hova viszik a férjemet?” Azt mondja: „Lelövöm, hogyha tovább beszél!” Anyukám nem törődött vele, és továbbmentünk. Ahogy bejöttek a magyarok, csináltak az Árpád úton egy hadtestparancsnokságot. És a hadtestparancsnokságig mentünk, ott már nem engedtek be. Azután hazamentünk. Körülbelül másfél óra múlva hazajött szegény apukám, összecibálva a szakálla, és össze volt verve véresre. Akkor már láttuk, hogy itt már nincs jó kezdet. De azért mégsem gondolta volna az ember, hogy mi fog történni, halvány fogalma sem volt az embernek!

Azután én és a testvérem, Sulámit, felmentünk Pestre 1941-ben egy virágkertészetbe. Kőbányán voltunk és dolgoztunk. A MIKÉFE-ben elkezdtünk egy hachsarát. A hachsara az Izraelbe [Palesztinába] való kimenést készítette elő. Ezért jöttünk fel Pestre, éreztük, hogy jobb lenne nem itt maradni. 1943-ban megmenekült egypár ember Lengyelországból, gyerekek is és felnőttek is. És csináltak egy szemináriumot a hachsara keretei között Balatonbogláron ezek a lengyelek, és megmondták, hogy nagyon félnek, és megjósolták, hogy ugyanaz fog történni, ami történt Lengyelországban, Csehszlovákiában, Németországban, hogy majd deportálni fogják a zsidókat. Mondták ott a szemináriumon, hogy ők kiugrottak a robogó vagonokból, ami vitte őket Auschwitzba, és így megmenekültek, és Magyarországra lehetett még menekülni.

A Joint segített, adott pénzt, és elbújtatták az embereket. Ebben segítettem én is mint cionista mozgalmi ember. Volt egy Farkas Kálmán nevű zászlós, egy nagyon helyes, rendes keresztény ember [Farkas Kálmán megkapta a Világ Igaza kitüntetést. – A szerk.]. Neki volt egy villája a Rózsadombon, és az bújtatta ezeket a lengyeleket lent a pincében. Én mivelhogy én nem egészen zsidónak néztem ki, mert azt mondják, hogy a zsidók fekete hajúak, meg hosszú orruk nőtt, én meg világos bőrű és zöld szemű vagyok, engem vettek fel, mintha én lennék ott a bejárónő, vezetném a háztartást stb. Ott voltam ebben a villában, és egy pár hónap múlva, hogy beköltöztünk, egyszerre csak reggel korán csengetnek, és bejött két detektív. Én ágyban voltam, nem tudom, hat óra volt. Én be voltam jelentve, hogy én itt lakom, mert mi már szereztünk idejekorán keresztény iratokat 1943-ban. A városházán szereztük, úgy, hogy kikerestünk születési anyakönyvi kivonatokat, és egyszerűen elvettünk adatokat. Ez úgy történt, hogy a cionista vezetőink már mindent előkészítettek nekünk, és egy adott időre be kellett mennünk, és akkor ott választhattunk magunknak új azonosságot. A nevem Horváth Erzsébet volt. Farkas Kálmánt keresték a csendőrök, ő előjött, és mondta, hogy itt van ez a kis Horváth Erzsébet, ő az én házvezetőnőm. Így mentett meg. A szomszédok, úgy látszik, hogy feljelentették ezt a Farkas Kálmánt, látták biztos, hogy éjjel jönnek is, mennek is, szóval feljelentették, és kihallgatták. Azt mondja: „Figyeljen, Erzsike, engem elvisznek”. Én akkor nem tudtam, hogy őt viszik a Sváb-hegyre, ott volt a főhadiszállása a németeknek [A Majestic nevű sváb-hegyi panzióban, a Karthauzi u. 4. szám alatt voltak Eichmann irodái, és itt volt a székhelye   a Gestapo magyar megfelelőjének, az Állambiztonsági Rendészetnek is. Négy részlege közül az egyiknek a feladata (Koltay László irányítása alatt) a német megszállást közvetlenül követő időben a politikailag megbízhatatlannak tartott elemek (zsidók és nem zsidók) utáni hajtóvadászat volt. – A szerk.], de ezek persze magyar detektívek voltak. És azt mondta – „Erzsike, vigyázzon” – volt egy kutya – „vigyázzon rá, majd visszajövök egypár nap múlva, és minden rendben lesz.” És már vitték is, én már láttam, hogy itten baj van.

Volt egy Bucsinszky kávéház, valahol talán a Teréz körúton, Pesten, és ott találkoztak a cionisták [Bucsinszky kávéház (Erzsébet krt. 30.) – Nagy Lajos 1936-ban megjelent „Budapest nagykávéház” című könyvének „modellje”, az  1930-ban megszűnt Angol kávéház helyén (valaha, a 19. század utolsó éveiben ennek tulajdonosa volt ifjabb Vanek József, Rejtő „modellje”). Főként a művészvilág képviselői látogatták, ún. "művészkávéház" volt, törzsvendég volt itt  Nagy Lajos, Rejtő Jenő, Szerb Antal, Bálint György. – A szerk.]. Gyűlések voltak időről időre, de ez volt az egyetlen alkalom, hogy elmentem ilyen gyűlésre. Ez valamikor 1944 februárjában lehetett [Biztosan később volt, hiszen a németek 1944. március 19-én vonultak be Magyarországra. – A szerk.]. Csak azért, mert már nem éreztem magam biztonságban ott a villában. És elmondtam, hogy mi történt, és volt egy doktor, aki szintén vezető volt, és azt mondta: „Figyeljetek ide, lesz most kedden illegális alija Bukaresten keresztül, előbb Temesvárra, onnan a határ, és azután vonatra ültök, és megérkeztek Erec Izráelbe, Palesztinába.” Én rögtön vállalkoztam, mert láttam, hogy én is már veszélyben vagyok, mert biztos kihallgatás lesz, és akkor megtudják, hogy lengyeleket bújtattunk, és hogy nekem hamis papírjaim vannak. Kérdezték, „Te akarsz alijázni?”. Mondtam, hogy igen. Akkor engem választottak, én voltam az egyetlenegy magyar ajkú, és volt egy negyven év körüli cseh asszony. Mi voltunk ketten nők, a többiek lengyelek voltak: gyerekek és férfiak tízen. Megadták nekünk az útirányt, hogy felszállunk Budapesten az első osztályú vonatra, és Zomborra fogunk menni, és ott vár bennünket egy paraszt. Ez az asszony kapott pénzt, hogy mikor megérkezünk Zomborra, ő fog hozni egy nagy kocsit, és visz bennünket Temesvárra, ott volt a magyar–román határ.

Emlékszem, éjszaka volt, mentünk bokrokon keresztül. És végül megérkeztünk éjszaka Zomborra, egy kis faluba. Eltelt egy negyedóra, egyszerre csak hallom a kutyaugatásokat, és azt, hogy „Hölgyeim és uraim, vegyék tudomásul, hogy önök a foglyaink!”. Hideggé vált a vér a szívemben, mert mindenre gondoltam, csak erre nem. És rögtön jöttek, és azt gondolom, hogy azt gondolták, hogy kémek vagyunk, ami még rosszabb, mint zsidónak lenni. És rögtön tettek ránk – életemben először és utoljára – bilincseket, és vittek bennünket a főkapitányságra ott, Zomboron, éjszaka. Magyar csendőrök fogadtak bennünket. Mondom, csak én értettem meg, hogy miről van szó, csak én meg ez az asszony – ő is tudott valamennyit magyarul –, és rögtön mentek, és csináltak kutatást, vertek bennünket, és mondták, hogy most már Szegedre fognak bennünket vinni, ott van a kémelhárító. Fogalmam sem volt soha életemben, hogy ott van egy kémelhárító. Aztán jól megvertek bennünket, és kutattak, és elvették mindenünket. Közben nekem be volt írva a bejelentőlapba, hogy én Horváth Erzsébet vagyok, és Farkas Kálmánnál abban a villában, ott lakom. Azt mondta nekem az, aki megnézte a bejelentőlapot: „Maga duplán van vádolva azért, mert akarja tudni, hogy ezzel a Farkas Kálmánnal mi történt? Ő a Gestapóban van a Sváb-hegyen. És aki vállalta azt, hogy lengyel menekülteket bujtasson, arra halál vár. És maga is részt vett ebben, konspirált vele.” Szóval igazam volt, minden kiderült már eddigre.

Elvittek bennünket Szegedre, a kémelhárítóba. Betettek, persze a nőket külön, a férfiakat külön. Először is megállapították, hogy zsidók vagyunk-e. A férfiakról rögtön megállapították, hogy zsidók. Akkor azok külön voltak, mi pedig ott voltunk a gyerekekkel, meg ez a cseh nő meg én. A cseh nő meg kellett írjon egy levelet ennek a parasztnak, hogy megérkeztünk Zomborra, hiszen mi nem találkoztunk vele, de azt kellett higgye, hogy minden rendben van velünk, és minden oké, és hogy jöhet a többi csoport. Mert csak az volt a bűnünk, hogy meg akartunk menekülni, el akartunk menni Izraelbe [Palesztinába], ahol ugye élt már az egyik testvérem. Akkor kezdődtek a kihallgatások. Először elvitték a lengyeleket, és amikor visszajöttek a cellába, szét voltak verve egészen, és azután elvitték őket. Én nem tudtam akkor, hogy hova viszik, azt sem, hogy megölik őket. Mindenkit kihallgattak. Ez a cseh nő, mivelhogy ezt a levelet odaadta annak a parasztnak, látta, hogy itt egész társaságok fognak jönni Pestről megint, merthogy állítólag minden rendben van, és biztonságban vagyunk. Nem tudta a lelkiismeretére venni, és fogta magát egy éjszaka, vett egy harisnyát, és felakasztotta magát. Elkezdtünk kiabálni, szörnyű volt, őrület, rögtön jöttek az őrök, levették és elvitték. A másik nap bevittek engem kihallgatásra, akkor már csak tényleg én beszéltem magyarul, és azt mondták, hogy maga biztos tudta, hogy ez öngyilkos akart lenni, és hogy miért hagytam. Mondom, én nem tudtam semmiről.

Volt egy Varga nevezetű a vonatban, amikor mentünk Pestről az első osztályon, de nem foglalkoztam vele. De láttam, amikor volt a kihallgatás, hogy ott volt az az ember, szóval már Pestről elárultak bennünket; én megismertem azt a férfit, aki bennünket követett. Besúgó volt, egy áruló. Bevittek oda, a kihallgatószobába, és jött egy detektív és egy rendőr, és volt egy gumibotja, és elkezdték verni a fenekemet meg a talpat. Úgy látszik ez lehet a legérzékenyebb pontja az embernek, és kérdeztek mindent, amit én mondok, hogy igaz-e. Érdeklődtek, hogy hol találkoztunk Pesten, és kik voltak azok, akik intézték ezeket a csoportokat. Akkor én mondtam, hogy hogy és mint, de neveket nem mondtam. Illetve csak a fedőneveket, hiszen csak azokat tudtuk amúgy is. Akkor azt mondja az a detektív: „Maga miért akart más lenni, mint a többi?” Miután már megtudták, hogy nem vagyunk kémek, hogy zsidók vagyunk, azt mondja: „Miért akar maga más lenni, mint a többi hittestvérei? Miért indult maga el, miért nem maradt a többi zsidókkal?” Fiatal lány voltam, volt merszem, mondom, „Ha önnek lenne alkalma, hogy megmentse az életét, nem igyekezne mindent megcsinálni? És összevissza csak az a bűnünk, hogy át akartunk menni a román határon, mert onnan mentünk volna Bukarestbe, Bukarestből mentünk volna Constanţába, és onnan ki Palesztinába”. Állt és nézett az a detektív, nem tudta elképzelni, hogy hogy volt nekem merszem mondani azt, miután jól összevertek. Volt egy váróterem ott a kapitányságnál, és ott volt egy csomó német SS és a magyarok, detektívek, és mondták németül: „Diese Herren und Frauen warten auf erhängen zu sein.” Ami magyarul azt jelenti, hogy ezek a hölgyek és a férfiak, várják, hogy felakasszák őket. Ilyenkor azt gondoltam, hogy ez egy detektívregény, vagy hogy álmodom, nem hittem, hogy ez tényleg mind igaz, ami velem történik, mintha álmodnék egy rossz álmot. Miután jól megvertek és kihallgattak engem, visszamentem a cellába. Közben azokat a lengyel állampolgárokat már mind elvitték Auschwitzba, ezt azután tudtam meg. Ott lehettünk a Csillag börtönben úgy hat hétig. Volt ottan egy csomó politikai fogoly is, keresztények is.

Azt mondták nekem: „Elvisszük magát vissza, Pestre, és elvisszük a főkapitányságra. Ezeket a dolgokat, amiket mondott, ha ez nem igaz, akkor agyon fogjuk verni, meg fogja látni.” Ez valamikor tavasszal lehetett. És megint bilincsbe tették a kezemet, és vittek vonaton fel Pestre. Az volt a szerencse, hogy a főkapitányságra vittek, de ottan nem voltak ilyesmik, de aztán elvittek a Mosonyi utcába, az volt a gyűjtőtábor, összegyűjtöttek embereket az utcáról, mindenhonnan, tudták, hogy zsidók, és összegyűjtötték őket. Ott egypár napig voltunk, és akkor kitereltek bennünket közel a Dunához, és odahoztak Pest környékéről egy csomó embert, zsidót, és én láttam a saját szememmel, hogy dobták be a magyarok a Dunába az embereket, és utánalőttek [A nyilasok által véghezvitt vérengzések (többek között a zsidók Dunába lövése) csak az 1944. október 15-i nyilas hatalomátvétel után történtek. – A szerk.] Saját szememmel láttam ezt. Mondták ezek a szerencsétlen emberek, hogy amikor hozták őket még a falukon keresztül, álltak kinn a vidéki parasztok, és tapsoltak, és örültek, hogy elviszik őket. Ezek a magyar parasztok akkor már tudták jól, hogy a zsidó vagyonokat majd elvehetik. Persze az ékszereket is mind elvették a magyarok, mindent, ami volt, úgyhogy maradtak semmi nélkül. Mármint az a néhány szerencsés, aki visszajött a felszabadulás után a lágerekből vagy munkaszolgálatból, annak semmije nem maradt, és nem is kapott vissza semmit sem.

Még tavasz volt, úgy május lehetett, amikor elvittek egy pályaudvarra, és betettek bennünket egy vagonba, kábé hetvenen voltunk, és az volt a szerencse, hogy voltak egy csomóan benne csehszlovákok, fiatalok, cionisták, akik tele voltak élettel, és akik tudták azt, hogy meg lehet még talán menekülni Szlovákián keresztül. Akkor még adták nekünk a tanácsot, hogy amikor Szlovákián keresztül haladunk majd – úgy látszik, ezen az útvonalon ment Auschwitzba a vagon –, akkor le lehet majd ugrani éjszaka, a társaik pedig eldugtak fűrészeket meg ilyesmi, hogy el tudják majd vágni a vagonajtókat, és aki tud, az majd kiugorhat akkor a robogó vagonból. Mi voltunk, pestiek, ottan öten-hatan. Amikor Szlovákián keresztül ment a vagon, elaludtam éjszaka, lehetséges, hogy ez volt a szerencsém, és kora reggel, mikor felkeltem, láttam, hogy hűlt helye a közeli barátoknak, akik ott voltak. Szörnyen odavoltam, gondoltam, hogy íme, most lett volna egy alkalmam, hogy mentsem az életemet. És azután rá egy-két napra megérkeztünk Auschwitzba. [Sok más elfogott, túszként letartóztatott zsidóhoz hasonlóan ezeket a cionistákat is a Mosonyi utcai kisegítő toloncházba, majd a kistarcsai internálótáborba vitték, és innen valamelyik korai (talán az április 28-i) szállítmánnyal deportálták Auschwitzba. A déli határsávban, Zombornál fogták el, ott a zsidók elszállítása (Szegedre) már május 26-án megkezdődött, így arról is lehetett információja. – A szerk.]

Akkor még nem tudtam, hogy mi történt a vagonban. Megérkeztünk Auschwitzba, rögtön ez a Mengele, az orvos, egy fiatal jóképű ember volt, bal, jobb, bal, jobb; én azt gondoltam, hogy mindenkit visznek bal oldalra, a krematóriumba. Amondó voltam, mert ugye ahogy a lengyelek mesélték, pont úgy volt. És akkor vittek bennünket, levettek mindent rólunk, vittek bennünket fertőtlenítőbe. Ott, Auschwitzban volt két fertőtlenítő. Úgy látszik, volt egyik a gáz, és egy rendes, valódi fertőtlenítő. Szerencsémre engem vittek a rendes fertőtlenítőbe, jobb oldalra. Levettek mindent rólunk, és adtak valami rongyokat ránk. És nem volt szabad csak egy dolgot felvenni. És levágták a hajunkat, és mindenünket leborotválták. Emlékszem, Kolozsváron volt a Trefort utcában a bolondokháza, hát azok néztek úgy ki. Mindig levágták a hajukat, és tették őket csíkos ruhákba. De nekünk nem csíkos ruhákat adtak, hanem csak egy dolgot lehetett felvenni, egy zsákot, alatta nem lehetett semmi.

Úgy két-három nap múlva találkoztam a barátnőmmel, aki kiszökött még az úton a vonatból, egy nyíregyházi lány volt, csak Pesten voltunk együtt, ott ismertük meg egymást. Kérdem, mi történt. Azt mondja, tudod, mi történt? Éjszaka, hogy kiugrottunk, meg volt beszélve, hogy aki megmarad, azokkal összejövünk, ott volt egy falu, és volt pénz a fiúknál, hogyha valami történik. Leugrottak, az egyik lánynak, szegénynek összeloccsant a feje, egy villanyoszlopba ütötte be a fejét, egy másiknak eltört a keze, neki nem történt semmi baja. Megbeszélték, hogy bemennek a faluba, és kell hozni orvost. Volt pénzük, és volt egy paraszt ottan, és adtak egy csomó pénzt, hogy hozzon orvost. Persze a paraszt hozta rögtön a Gestapót. És ez a nő megbeszélte, ez meg volt egy fiú, hogyha elkapják őket, öngyilkosak lesznek, elvágják az ereiket, volt is valami éles szerszámuk elbújtatva neki. És fogta magát, és elvágta az ereit. De rögtön jöttek azután a németek, és mondták neki, hogy ő fiatal, megmentik, és elviszik munkatáborba. Szóval összesen kettő-három, ha menekült, mert a többiek meghaltak ott.

Két-három napra rá, hogy Auschwitzban voltam, először bekerültem a cseh lágerbe, azt mondták, hogy ez a cseh láger azelőtt családi láger volt, itt együtt maradhattak a  családok, a gyerekek [lásd: családi tábor Auschwitzban]. Az eredeti lakóit a lágernek persze már elvitték biztosan gázkamrába, és akkor voltunk kábé vagy ezer lány ott egy barakkban összetömörítve, mint a heringek, és reggel vagy ötkor fel kellett keljünk, zahlappel. Ez azt jelenti, hogy lássák, hogy valaki nem szökött-e meg éjszaka. Voltak szlovák lágeresek, ezek is zsidók voltak, de nagyon kegyetlenek voltak, mert már ott voltak három éve [A szlovák zsidók deportálása 1942-ben kezdődött, 1942. március 25. és október 20. között 57 szerelvényt indítottak 57 752 emberrel (19 szerelvény egyenesen az auschwitzi haláltáborba indult). Lásd: deportálások Szlovákiából. – A szerk.], és azért voltak olyan kegyetlenek, mert csak úgy tudtak megmaradni. Szóval kurucoknak tették őket. És azért tudtak megmaradni, mert kaptak enni bőségesebben, mint mi. És ők már olyanok voltak, mint a kövek. S mondták nekünk, „Amikor mi már nagyban szenvedtünk, ti még Budapesten mentetek moziba meg ide-oda”. Mondom, „Én nem vagyok hibás azért, hogy sajnos ez történt, hogy ilyen sok évekig annyi sok áldozat van, és olyan keményen kell dolgoznotok”.

Ott voltak férfi lágerek is. Politikai foglyok is voltak külön meg oroszok. Villanydrót választotta el egymástól a részeket. El volt választva az egyik láger a másiktól. Aki megfogta azt a drótot, elvillanyosodott. És jött egy férfi, aki a munkavezető volt, és németül tudott beszélni, de orosz volt, meglátott engem, és azt mondta nekem, hogy „Te leszel itten a munkavezető, kell itten fertőtleníteni”. Ahogy hozták a dolgokat mindenkinek, takarókat, és azokat is, akik elhozták, kellett fertőtleníteni. És mondta, hogy itt vannak a többi lányok, ők is menjenek dolgozni. Aztán pedig akart velem kikezdeni, csókolni, persze titokban. Mondtam neki: „Figyelj ide, én ezt nem engedem, hogy engem csókoljál, otthon, ha egy fiú udvarolt nekem fél évig, akkor megengedtem.” „Figyelj ide – mondta nekem –, te nekem tetszel, és nekem van itt hatalmam. Én már itt vagyok régóta, és van mindenem, kenyerem, cigaretta (cigarettáért lehetett venni kenyeret), és én foglak téged segíteni. Én kiválasztottalak téged.” Nekem volt annyi lélekjelenetem, hogy amikor bevitt engem egy waschraumba, és kezdett ölelni, és meg akart erőszakolni, azt mondtam neki, hogy én ezt nem engedem semmi pénzért. Azt mondja: „Hogy lehet, ezer ember, millió csinálja ezt?” Akkor én azt mondtam, hogy akkor én leszek az ezeregyedik, aki viszont nem fogja ezt csinálni. Volt lélekjelenlétem, pedig vihettek volna rögtön a gázkamrába. Szerencsém volt, valaki bejött, és hamar elszaladtam. És nézett utánam, nem hitt a szemeinek. De aztán békén hagyott.

Közben beválasztottak az életben maradók közé, és megcsinálták a tetoválást. Aki még jól nézett ki, az megkapta a tetoválását [Auschwitzban a munkára kiválasztott foglyok karjára számot tetováltak. – A szerk.]. Még egy nyamvadt kis tetoválást sem akartak feleslegesen megcsinálni. Beválasztottak a konyhába. Nagyon nehezet dolgoztam, de legalább volt ott mit enni, és nem volt szelektálás, mert előtte minden nap szelektálás volt. Aki egy kicsit beteg volt, vagy valami baja volt, rögtön vitték el. Azt láttuk, hogy aki dolgozott, és a konyhában volt, az nem ment szelektáláson keresztül. Egy jó pár hónap múlva, amikor ott voltam, jöttek, és kérdezték, hogy ki akar menni ide-oda. Gondoltam magamban, én nem fogok jelentkezni. Ha kiválasztanak, megyek, ha nem, nem, mert mindig féltem, hogy visznek oda, a krematóriumba. Mindig éjszaka vitték, felöltöztették szépen, és zenével kísérték, bizony, bizony, zenével, sőt magyar lány, sok budapesti volt, aki hegedült [Auschwitz I-ben és más táborokban is gyakorlat volt, hogy „megnyugtatásul” zenét játszottak a raboknak. Tudunk Birkenauban a gázkamrák tőszomszédságában játszó zenekarról is. Arról azonban, hogy a halálba indulókat „kiöltöztették”, nincs adatunk. – A szerk.]. Ők is részt vettek ebben a cirkuszban. Zenével, hogy gondolják azt, hogy nem oda viszik.

1944 novemberében feloszlatták a konyhát, és akkor azt mondták, most elviszünk titeket, mit tudom én, hová [1944 novemberében megszüntették Auschwitzban az elgázosítást, és igyekeztek eltüntetni a nyomokat. A munkaképes rabokat továbbra is küldték transzportokban más táborokba. A létszámcsökkenés miatt válogathatták be az (egyik) konyhán dolgozókat is a transzportba. – A szerk.]. Betettek bennünket egy vagonba, csak kenyeret adtak, és adtak valami fehér köpenyt, és vittek bennünket Dachauba, ami München mellett van. Amikor oda megérkeztünk, mindenkitől érdeklődtünk, nem tudtuk, mi történt még a szülőkkel, hiszen én nem mentem együtt a szüleimmel. Én Pestről mentem, őket pedig Kolozsvárról hozták, és érdeklődtünk mindig, hátha ismerték, hátha tudják; persze senki sem tudta. December volt, amikor bekerültünk a lágerbe, Dachauba, szörnyű volt. Térdig érő hó. Nyolc kilométert kellett menni havat pucolni ilyen magas hóban, és facipőnk volt. Nyolc kilométert menni oda, és nyolc kilométert vissza. Volt, aki nem jött vissza egyáltalán, mert megfagyott. Elmentünk vagy kétszer-háromszor, amíg majdnem megfagytunk. Azután pedig már ezt nem csináltuk, hanem választottak ki megint egy csomót, hogy a konyhára menjen krumplit pucolni. Ott is vagy nyolc kilométert mentünk, de mégis bementünk egy meleg helyre, és mégis volt mit együnk, és nyolc kilométert vissza. Körülbelül vagy három hónapot átéltünk, azt a nagyon nehéz telet, és akkor megint fogtak minket, és vittek Bergen-Belsenbe.

Ott is betettek barakkokba. Ezren voltunk összesen a barakkokban. Kezdtem dolgozni egy szövőszéken, amin rongyokból lehetett különböző szőnyegeket csinálni, és ottan találkoztam egy kolozsvári lánnyal, és volt egy testvére is, és megbeszéltük, hogy együtt leszünk egy barakkban. Közben már úgy látszik, jöttek az oroszok meg az amerikaiak, úgy látszott, hogy már kezdett vége lenni a dolognak, és akkor már nem adtak se enni, se inni [Bergen-Belsent a brit hadsereg szabadította föl. – A szerk.]. Mindenki fertőződött tífusszal, volt hasmenésünk, úgyhogy betegek lettünk. Közben jött a felszabadítás.

Ez idáig semmit sem tudtam a szüleimről. Amíg megtudtam, hogy mi történt az én drága szüleimmel, addig idő telt el. Emlékszem, amikor vittek bennünket Auschwitzból először Dachauba s azután Bergen-Belsenbe, én mindenhol kérdeztem, hogy hátha valaki látta őket, hátha valaki tud róluk. Mondtam az apám nevét, hogy kolozsváriak. Azért akkor már sejtettem, hogy lágerbe vitték őket is, de hogy mi történt velük pontosan, azt nem, de miután én voltam a lágerben, én voltam Auschwitzban is, sajnos pontosan tudom, hogy mi történt velük.

Mi már annyira megkövesedtünk, hogy nem tudtunk már semmiről, hogy mi van. Amikor volt a felszabadítás, hoztak konzerveket, amit ettünk az üres gyomorra, és persze még jobban kaptuk a betegségeket, egyik napról a másikra haltak meg az emberek. Idő nem volt, hogy vigyék kórházakba, nem is volt igazi kórház, kaszárnyákból csináltak kórházakat. Egyik pillanatról a másikra láttuk, hogy még beszél a szemben lévő lány, a másik pillanatban már meghalt. Ezzel a kolozsvári lánnyal még volt egy kis erőnk, megbeszéltünk, ha meg akarunk menekülni, próbáljunk egyedül. Nem tudtunk járni, csak négykézláb, mint az állatok. A harmadik emeletről – mert háromemeletes priccseink voltak – mentünk, és lekászálódtunk a két kezünkkel meg a lábunkkal, és kimentünk, és amit ott láttunk, nem is tudtuk felfogni. Emberi végtagokat, kezeket, lábakat, akik mind meghaltak a tífusztól, és amit a németek halomba hordtak. Ahogy mentünk ki kúszva, egyszer láttunk egy kis barakkot, és rá volt téve egy vöröskereszt, akkor odakászálódtunk, és szerencsénkre volt egy magyar ember ottan, és rögtön bevett bennünket, adott nekünk krumplicukrot, és rögtön hívta a vöröskeresztet, a kórházat. Mi már majdnem végelgyengülésben voltunk, és rögtön vittek a fertőtlenítőbe, megmosdattak, tele volt minden tetvekkel meg kosszal és a hasmenés, szörnyű volt, és azután bevittek egy kórházba.

A kórházban adtak szulfátot, az jó volt a hasmenés ellen. Láttam, hogy ez a barátnőm napról napra jobban van, meghízott szépen, húsz-huszonöt kiló lehetett akkor már körülbelül, és nagyon csodálkoztam, hogy ő ilyen jól néz ki. Közben a svéd kormány elhatározta, hogy menedéket adnak ezeknek az embereknek, akik átélték a lágert, és a betegeknek főleg, akik tífuszban szenvednek. Úgyhogy fogták azokat, akik betegek voltak, hajóra tettek bennünket, és vittek Svédországba. Megérkeztünk Helsinborgba, az a portja [angol: ’kikötő’] Svédországnak. És vártak bennünket ott svéd nurse-ök [angol: ’ápolónő’]. Akkor a német nyelv volt a világnyelv, mindenki beszélt németül, és kérdezték tőlünk, hogy mit csináltunk mi, milyen bűnt követtünk el, hogy koncentrációs lágerekben voltunk. Mit csináltunk? Öltünk, gyilkoltunk talán?

Ők nem tudták elképzelni, hogy valakit csak azért, mert más vallású vagy zsidó származású, azért el akarják pusztítani. Bevittek bennünket karanténba. Csináltak iskolákból karanténokat. Aki beteg volt, rögtön vitték kórházba, mint ezt a barátnőmet, és aztán meghalt szegény, mert neki az volt a baja, hogy az éhségtől felfújódott a hasa, és szegény ezért nézett ki olyan jól! Felhizlaltak bennünket a svédek, nagyon szépen fogadtak, meghívtak a lakásukba. Ott voltunk egy évig, dolgoztunk, és jöttek Izraelből [Palesztinából] kiküldöttek, hogy aki akar jönni – nem lehetett jönni Izraelbe, mert az angolok voltak ott, és nem engedtek be, de hátha lehetséges illegálisan bejutni [Palesztina brit mandátum volt, és az angolok éves bevándorlási kvótát állapítottak meg, amitől sem a háború alatt, sem utána nem voltak hajlandók eltérni. Ezért megpróbáltak minden bevándorlókat szállító hajót elfogni, és az utasokat Ciprusra internálták, ahonnan minden évben csak bizonyos számú embert engedtek legálisan bevándorolni Palesztinába. – A szerk.]

Egy év múlva feltettek bennünket repülőgépre, és elvittek Belgiumba, Brüsszeltől húsz kilométerre. Ott volt egy elhagyott kastély, és ottan találkoztunk egy csomó fiatal, és nyolc hónap múlva mondták, hogy „Vegyetek egy-egy hátizsákot, mert viszünk benneteket Marseille-be, Franciaországba, és ottan vár a Theodor Herzl hajó, és megyünk Palesztinába. Nem biztos, hogy meg fogunk érkezni, az angolok, nem engednek be, és ez illegális, de megpróbáljuk”. Felszedtük a cókmókunkat, ami nem volt túl sok, és megérkeztünk oda, voltunk vagy háromezren, mint a szardíniák. Három emeletes volt a Theodor Herzl hajó, és mi voltunk a legalacsonyabban. Felmentünk a fedélzetre, hánytunk, de azért táncoltunk és énekeltünk, mert volt bennünk remény, hogy meg fogunk érkezni. Nem tudom, hány napot tartott az út, vagy négy napot. Szerencsésen megérkeztünk 1946-ban Haifára. Haifán volt egy bátyám, a Herman meg a nővérem, a Sulámit. Amikor Auschwitzban voltam, az adott erőt, hogy tudtam, hogy ő Jeruzsálemben van, és az volt az álmom, hogy én muszáj megmeneküljek, muszáj elérnem a nővéremet.

Mikor megérkeztem Haifára, úgy láttam, hogy mindenki ismeri egymást. És mondtam, hátha ismerik a bátyámat is. Persze senki sem ismerte. De rögtön jöttek az angolok, feljöttek a hajóra, és könnygázt eresztettek ránk, hogy senki se tudjon ellenkezni, és mi leterültünk a földre, és beraktak bennünket kis csónakokba, és vittek Ciprusba. Direkt felállítottak ott táborokat, hogy ne tudjunk jönni Izraelbe. Megint egy ilyen helyre kerültünk, megint voltak drótok, persze nem úgy, mint a lágerben, de vigyáztak ránk, barakkokba tettek bennünket, de persze sokkal jobb volt a helyzet, és vártuk, hogy tudjunk megérkezni Izraelbe.

Izraelből jöttek sliáchok [cionista szervezetek küldöttei – A szerk.], és így eltelt az idő. Ott voltam egy évig, nem engedtek be az angolok. A végén megadták az ENSZ-engedélyt Izraelnek, hogy egy zsidó nemzeti otthont építsen. Ez 1947-ben volt. Mikor ezt meghallottuk, elkezdtünk táncolni, és boldogok voltunk. De akkor még nem engedtek jönni. Mert közben mi történt? Hogy kitört a háború, az arabok megnyitották ellenünk a háborút Izraelben [lásd: 1948-as függetlenségi háború Izraelben], és a férfiakat nem engedték, hogy jöjjenek, mert az angolok tudták, hogy harcolni fognak az arabok ellen, és csak a családos embereket engedték gyerekekkel. 1948 júniusában végül, amikor megalakult végre az állam, megadták az engedélyt, hogy megérkezzem ide, Izraelbe. Akkor az angolok bent voltak még vagy három hónapot.

Tel-Avivban volt egy nővérem, Sulámit, nála voltam úgy három hónapig. Az ő története a következő: vele nem voltam már együtt Pesten 1943 után. Ő a MIKÉFE-n maradt. És volt egy Kasztner nevezetű, az is kolozsvári volt, de nagy ember volt, a parlamentbe is bejárhatott, és újságíró is volt. Ez a doktor Kasztner kollaborált az Eichmann-nal [lásd: Kasztner-vonat]. Azt mondta, ő megmentett valami ezer, nem tudom, ezerötven embert, de azok mind gazdagok voltak, és sok pénzt fizettek. Ha valakinek nem volt pénze, azt nem vette be. Ezt a csoportot a Vöröskereszt által elvitték Svájcba, de előbb voltak három hónapot a Vöröskereszt égisze alatt Bergen-Belsenben. De azoknak persze nem vágták le a hajukat, ott emberi módon bántak velük. És Sulámit egész véletlenül odakerült, mert volt egy barátnője, aki lemondott, az egy gazdag lány volt, és ő ment a helyére az ő nevében. Ez 1944-ben volt, valamikor kora ősszel. Három hónapig voltak Bergen-Belsenben, onnan kerültek Svájcba, Zürichbe. De ő nagyon gyenge idegzetű volt, és miután megtudta, hogy mi történt a szülőkkel, kapott egy sokkot, egész életére szegény idegszanatóriumokban volt. Beteg a mai napig, úgy fizikailag, mint lelkileg. Az utóbbi időben lelkileg jobban van, de fizikailag nehezen bírja. Lett neki azért családja. Egy magyar emberhez ment hozzá, már ott kint, Izraelben.

Sulámit lakása egy nagyon kicsike lakás volt, nehéz viszonyok voltak. Azután pedig egy barakklakásba kerültem, olyan volt, mint ma egy konténer. Ottan volt egy férfi, akié volt az a ház, és az mindig mondta nekem: „Dóra, én be akarok magának mutatni egy kolozsvári férfit, nagyon rendes ember, nehéz munkát végez és egyenes, és akkor lesz közös téma, Kolozsvár.” Miután egy évet voltam lágerben, és utána három évig tartott az alijám, most már akartam élni egy kicsit, nem akartam én még férjhez menni. De aztán mégiscsak megismerkedtem 1949-ben Blum Lacival, aki már az első találkozásunkkor mondta, hogy bizony belém szeretett. Én nem hittem neki, naiv voltam nagyon.

A Laci története pedig ez: 1915-ben született Kolozsváron. Az ő családja is vallásos volt, de nem olyan nagyon fanatikusan, mint nálunk. Az anyja lúdpiacon dolgozott, tollakkal kereskedett, és náluk is úgy volt, hogy ő tartotta el a családot. Ők négyen voltak testvérek. Mindenkijét elvitték, és megölték [A lánytestvére életben maradt, az egyik fiútestvére eltűnt, a másikat lelőtték a nyilasok Budapesten. A szülők elpusztultak. – A szerk.]. Ő munkaszolgálatban volt a magyaroknál, románoknál is. Ő soméros volt [lásd: Hasomér Hacair Romániában], igazi baloldali, és ő is mindig ki akart jönni Erec Izraelbe. Azt mondták neki, hachsarára kell mennie, és hogy valami nehéz munkát kell hogy kitanuljon, mert arra van itt szükség Izraelben. És így tanulta ki a rézöntést.

Van egy munkaszolgálatos története: egyszer terelték az osztagát Ferihegyre, és ottan dolgoztak, és aztán jött egy bomba, szőnyegbomba, és a szakaszvezetők el akartak rögtön vagy négyen valahova menni, egy gödörbe. És mondták: „Büdös zsidók, ne menjetek oda!” Nem akarták engedni, mert ők mentek oda, és ők valahol elbújtak, és miután vége volt a bombatámadásnak, hűlt helyük volt, megdögöltek ottan. Utána volt Ukrajnában szörnyű körülmények között. Ott iszonyúan magas hóban vagy négyen meneteltek, és a Wehrmachtok azt, aki nem ment, lelőtték. És lukas cipőkben havon mentek, és volt közöttük egy sakter, az nagyon vallásos volt, nem evett semmit, csak kenyeret vagy azt se, és csak cipelt egy Tórát magával. És mikor már alig tudott járni, kézen fogták, és elkezdte énekelni ezt az éneket, hogy „Áni máámin” (én hiszek) „beemuná slémá” (tiszta hittel), akkor meg fog segíteni az Isten, és át fogjuk élni ezeket. Ez benne van a Tórában [„Áni máámin beemuná slémá beviát Hámásiách, veáf ál pi sejitmáhmeáh, im kol ze ácháke lo bechol jom sejávo”, azaz „Teljes hittel hiszek a Messiás eljövetelében, s ha késlekedik is, ennek ellenére várom minden nap az eljövetelét.” Ez Maimonidész tizenhárom hittétele közül a tizenkettedik. Vannak, akik ezt el szokták mondani a hétköznapi reggeli ima végén, illetve eléneklik a sábáti
asztalnál. – A szerk.]. Mikor ezt mesélte Laci, esküszöm, hogy könnyeztünk mindig. Hogy mennyit jelent pszichológiailag. Pont úgy, amint én énekeltem a lágerben az ezer lánynak.

Akkor még nem volt vége a háborúnak, s ők megszöktek az alakulattól, és mentek gyalog, nem volt mit enni, de útközben találkoztak egy orosz csoporttal, és volt egy „provodnyik”, az a vezető oroszul. És azt gondolták az oroszok, hogy „nyemci”, azazhogy németek, s azokat rögtön lelövik. De azt mondták, nem, ők zsidók. Az, aki volt a fő, azt mondta nekik, hogy „gyertek ide be”, nem tudom hányan voltak, négyen-öten. Bejöttek, és megkérdezte tőlük zsidóul, hogy „vu zey lebn?” [jiddis: ’hol laknak?’] Nem hitték el. Mesélte, hogy őneki is a feleségét meg a családját megölték, nem tudom, hová valósi volt, Oroszországból, és úgy mondta nekik: „Nyet zsidih v’Evrope”, nincs zsidó Európában. S adott nekik egy passt [angol: ’engedély’], mert nem lehetett utazni, nem volt vonat, nem volt akkor semmi, csak autókra felkapaszkodtak. Mindenesetre haza akartak menni, nem tudták pontosan, mi történt. Szegény Laci még reménykedett, gondolta, hátha valaki hazajött. Amikor megérkezett Kolozsvárra, megy a házhoz. Persze minden ki van rabolva, és persze nem zsidók vannak ottan. A szomszédok ott voltak, s van egy kisfiú, azt mondja: „Anyu, gyere hamar, mert visszajöttek a büdös zsidók!” Úgy kezdődött. Laci nős volt azelőtt. A felesége gyönyörű perzsaszőnyegeket szőtt. Laci tudta, hogy a felesége odaadott szőnyegeket a szomszédoknak, amikor ő már a katonaságnál volt. És szólt azoknak, hogy adják vissza. Nem akarták visszaadni, de féltek a rendőrségtől, és nagy nehezen visszaadtak egy szőnyeget.

Egy évig voltunk Tel-Avivban. Laci dolgozott, nagyon nehéz munkát végzett, rézöntő volt. Én pedig dolgoztam egy cipőüzletben. És akkor olvastuk az újságban, hogy épül Petah Tikva környékén egy új negyed, és oda befizettünk. Egy fél évig tartott, amíg meglett a ház. 1950-ben megesküdtünk, és rá egy hónapra másállapotba kerültem, és megszületett a fiam, akit Jákobnak neveztünk. A férjem családjából vettük a nevet, a férjem apját hívták így. És utána vagy öt évvel lett egy kislányom, az Ráhel volt, a nővérem után kapta a nevét. Megtanultam héberül, de otthon mindig magyarul beszéltünk, az én fiam is tud nagyszerűen magyarul, pedig ott született, de persze azért izraeli akcentussal beszél. A lányom kevésbé tud magyarul, neki azért már az ivrit az első nyelve egyértelműen.

Én rögtön a gyerekeknek elmeséltem mindent, amin keresztülmentünk, mert nem tudtam magamban tartani, de nagyon sokan voltak, akik nagy traumában voltak, nem akarták, hogy a gyerekek lelki életét megsértsék, és ők nem mesélték el. De én elmeséltem, úgyhogy a gyerekek már gyerekkortól tudták, amin keresztülmentem. De persze közben rendes családi életet éltünk. A hatnapos háború után, 1968-ban kimentünk Amerikába, Clevelandbe, Ohióba, mert a férjemnek ott volt a családja, és akartunk egypár évet ott lenni. A Petah Tikva-i lakást kiadtuk, mert nem tudtuk, hogy mire megyünk. Nagyon szerettük Izraelt, de a helyzet miatt, hogy rosszabb volt az anyagi helyzetünk, így kellett dönteni. Először Laci volt, aki ment. Kimentünk, és Lacinak jó állása lett. Amerikában apartmanokban laknak az emberek, minden három hónapban költöznek, azokat ki kell festeni minden lakó után. És Laci nagyon szépen keresett ezzel a festéssel. Amerikában is minden péntek este meggyújtottuk a gyertyát, zmireszeket énekeltünk. A gyerekeink mindent tudnak a vallásról. Kóser háztartást vezetek. De használtunk elektromosságot szombaton, és utaztunk is. De aztán Laci volt az, aki nagyon vágyott vissza. Nem tudta először is megszokni a nagy távolságokat; órákig kellett utaznia a munkába. Én dolgoztam valami három hónapot, de azt mondta a Laci, „inkább ne dolgozz!”, nem is érte meg, kerestem egy dollárt óránként, és hozzátették az adót a férj keresetéhez. Ő egy nap alatt megkeresett annyit, mint én talán egy hónap alatt.

A fiam ott volt öt évet, megcsinálta a BA-t [főiskolai végzettség], és aztán azt mondta, hogy „Anyu, apu, én Izraelben születtem, nekem kötelességem menni az armyba [angol: ’hadsereg’]”. Ez volt 1972-ben. Akkor ment is vissza Erecbe [Izraelbe]. 1973-ban sajnos kitört a Jom Kipur-i háború [lásd: 1973-as arab–izraeli háború], ami szörnyű volt, és nem tudtunk semmi híreket tőle kapni. Gondoltuk, hogy nem fogják őket rögtön a sűrűjébe vinni, mert addig ő még csak kis gyakorlatokon vett részt. Persze ők voltak az elsők, akiket vittek a háborúba. De szerencsére visszajött onnan sértetlenül. És amikor hazajött, rá négy hónapra, akkor telefonált Amerikába, és elmesélte, hogy mi történt. Sajnos nagyon sok barátját már az első napon elkapták, és megölték az arabok. Nem voltunk erre előkészülve. Utolsó pillanatban – Nixon volt akkor az elnök, és Kissinger volt a védelmi miniszter [Henry Kissinger (1923), az Egyesült Államok 56. külügyminisztere (1973–77 között) Nixon és Gerald Ford elnöksége idején nemzetbiztonsági tanácsadó volt (1969–1975 között). – A szerk.] –, utolsó pillanatban kinyitották a NATO-ban a fegyvereket, és küldtek Izraelbe fegyvereket, hogy meg tudjuk menteni magunkat. Azután mi is visszajöttünk Izraelbe.

Aztán hazajött a lányom. Megcsinálta a BA-t [főiskolai végzettség] még ott, Clevelandben, és elment a jeruzsálemi egyetemre. Ez volt 1975-ben, és 1976-ban hazajöttünk mi. A fiam, amikor hazajöttünk, megnősült, és azután a lányom is férjhez ment, és azután elment, és megcsinálta a mastersét [egyetemi végzettség] Amerikában, és utána megcsinálta a Columbia Egyetemen a doktorátusát pszichológiából. Most kinn él Kaliforniában, San Franciscóban, a legszebb hely a világon, azt mondják. A fiam Tel-Avivban él.

A gyerekeim kevésbé tradíciótartók, mint én, ők már igazi izraeliek. Biztos vagyok abban, hogyha otthon vannak, nem gyújtanak gyertyát. Talán böjtölnek, a lányom biztosan. A fiam már modernebb. De ha itt vannak nálam, itthon mindent megcsinálnak.

Hat évvel ezelőtt, mikor itt volt a fiam velünk, Magyarországon, együtt elmentünk Kolozsvárra egy napra. A Laci, ahogy volt neki alkalma, mindig kereste a szülőket. Ott Kolozsváron is kérdezősködött, kereste a nyomokat, híreket, az emlékeit. Nagyon nehezen dolgozta fel a szülei elvesztését. Szinte depressziós volt. Soha nem nyugodott meg.

Még nincs egy fél éve, hogy meghalt a férjem. Ötvenhárom évet nagyon szépen éltünk. A férjem után ültünk süvét mindannyian. Hét napot kell ülni. Amikor beteg volt, én is nagyon sokat szenvedtem vele, elsősorban lelkileg. Éjszaka állandóan felköltött, „Menjünk haza”, azt mondja. Mondom, „Hova haza?”, mondom, „Ez a mi hazánk, Izrael”. Azt mondja, nem, ő akarja az anyját, az apját látni.

Vannak gyönyörű unokáim, a lányomnak van egy fia és egy lánya, és három fia van a fiamnak. A fiam gyerekei közül a középső fiú a katonaságnál van, az elsőszülött az egyetemen van, és a kisebbik tizenhét éves, egyelőre még iskolába jár. A gyerekek nagyon érdeklődtek, látták ezeket a számokat a karomon, és kérdezték, hogy mi az. Mivelhogy lengyel apósa van a lányomnak, az a varsói gettóban volt, neki is van tetoválása. A gyerekek érdeklődtek, és mesélte rögtön, hogy mi volt a gettó, és hogy mi volt Auschwitz. Aztán látták nekem is, és aztán mi is mindent elmeséltünk nekik.

Azért akarom ezt elmondani, hogy tudja meg a magyar nép. Én tudom, hogy nem azok csinálták ezt, akik ma élnek, és ők nem tehetnek a történtekről, de a nagyapjuk lehet, hogy akkor fasiszta volt vagy nyilas [lásd: nyilasok]. Azért kell ezt tudni mindenkinek, fiatalnak, öregnek, hogy isten őrizz, hogy még egyszer ilyen megtörténjen! Sosem fogom tudni elfelejteni, visszatekintek a szüleim képére és az öcsém képére, aki tizenhárom éves volt, mikor elvitték. És milyen szörnyű halállal haltak meg az én szüleim meg a testvéreim, azonkívül a többi hatmillió zsidó is, és a nem zsidók is, akiket így elpusztítottak. Ezt csak azért akarom mondani, hogyha nem segítettek volna azok népek, ahol mindezek a szörnyűségek történtek, akkor nem tudták volna megcsinálni a németek ezeket a szörnyű krematóriumokat és a szörnyű öldökléseket. De az a szerencse, hogy én átmentem mindezen, és lett nekem egy nagyon szép családom. A legdrágább gyerekeim vannak és unokáim, és én boldog vagyok.

Rozalia Akselrod

Rozalia Akselrod
Kiev
Ukraine
Interviewer: Ella Levitskaya
Date of interview: April 2002

I, Rozalia Yakovlevna Akselrod, was born in the town of Khorol, Poltava region, on 8th July 1919. I will soon turn 83. At that time my parents lived in Khorol from where they also both came. My father was Yakov Davydovich Akselrod, born on 8th April 1885. My mother was Yevgenia Solomonovna Akselrod, nee Weber, born in March 1885. When she was born she was given the Jewish name Genya, but when she received her passport, she was registered as Yevgenia there.

The life of my relatives

Move to Kharkov

My school days

Great Famine and Great Terror

Leaving Kharkov after the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War

Settling in Kiev after its liberation

Returning to Kharkov

Anti-Semitic campaigns and life after Stalin's death

My family and my son's life

Life in independent Ukraine

Glossary

The life of my relatives

I never knew my grandparents on either side of my parents. My family left Khorol when I was about one year old. That is why I can tell you only a few things that I know about them from the words of my parents.

My grandfather, Solomon Weber, my mother’s father, came from Warsaw. He was born in the 1850s. Back in Warsaw he had a family with a wife and two children. He was called up to serve in the Tsar’s Army for 25 years here in Ukraine. His family was left in Warsaw. I don’t know how my grandfather found himself in Khorol, but he met my grandmother when he was still a soldier. In Khorol they got married. I think their wedding corresponded to all Jewish laws, with a chuppah and a rabbi. I know practically nothing about my grandmother, not even her name. I only know that she was two or three years younger than my grandfather. We have a medallion with a picture of my grandparents. Grandfather had a large beard, no head covering and long blond hair. In the picture Grandmother is wearing a black scarf on her head. Her face does not look Jewish at all. She looks much younger than Grandfather.

The Weber family had nine children. The oldest was Sonya, who was born in 1876. She moved to America in 1903. In about a year after coming to America, she ranked second at the New York Beauty Contest and soon after that she married a very rich man. After the revolution 1 we lost all communications with her and I know nothing more about her.

Then two more sisters were born: Masha in 1877 and Yelya in 1878. Both of them moved to live in Paris in 1907. There, in Paris, in 1909, they married two brothers, Jewish, by the name of Gertsberg. Their husbands were photographers and owned a photo studio. Yelya had a son who died at a very young age from peritonitis. He was a philosopher, a Sorbonne graduate. My mother had a book on philosophy written by him. It was printed in France and sent to us by the author. Masha had a son and a daughter of whom I know nothing. In the 1930s, all communications with the sisters was interrupted, because of the political situation in the USSR 2. I can tell you nothing more about them.

In 1879, Aunt Fenya was born. The family of my mother’s parents spoke little about her because they believed she committed two great sins. At the age of 17 Aunt Fenya was baptized at a Christian church. At that time she no longer lived in Khorol. I don’t know where exactly she lived. After being baptized she studied at a medical college and then worked as a nurse. She was never married but she had a child out of marriage. When the child grew up, when he reached 13 or 14, she sent him to Paris, to her sisters. That’s all I know about her; our family had no relations with this aunt. We terminated our relationship after she got baptized. She became a stranger to our family. She herself took no effort to keep in touch with her sisters or parents. She realized that her relatives wouldn’t understand any excuse for what she did.

The Uncle Misha was born in 1881. I knew him. Uncle Misha was a teacher of mathematics and music. He played violin very well. He died at a young age, in the 1930s. He was paralyzed for several years before he died. He had a daughter, Betya, and a grandson, Misha. His grandson was deputy director of a research institute for construction in Kharkov. Now he lives in Germany.

There was also Uncle Abram, born in 1882, who spent his whole life in Kharkov working at the factory of artistic products as a molder. He died in 1961. Uncle Abram had two daughters, Lyusya and Rosa. Lyusya now lives in Israel, while Rosa died in 2000. None of his daughters had children. 

Then Uncle Lyulya was born in 1884. Uncle Lyulya lived in Moscow. All his life he worked as an accountant at a battery farm. He had one son, who worked at a railway company. Uncle Lyulya died in the late 1960s.

In 1885, my mother was born, and in 1886 – Aunt Tanya, the last child in the family. Aunt Tanya got married at a very yearly age and did not work. She had a daughter called Lyalya. None of them is alive today. Aunt Tanya died in the late 1960s.

The family of my grandparents kept Jewish traditions. On holidays they went to the synagogue. At home they celebrated Jewish holidays. Unfortunately, my mother never told me anything about this in detail.

My mother had no education. Grandfather believed a girl should learn to be a good housewife. At that time married women did not work in Jewish families. My mother learned to sew underwear. All her life, whatever she did, she did very well. She became so famous in her profession that she got orders for sewing underwear for the local landowners. Mother worked like this until she got married. After getting married she told herself, ‘That’s it, I will never work again.’ And she never did. My mother had a clear mind and firm character by nature.

I know a little about the family of my father, Yakov Akselrod. Father told me that his mother was a very good woman. Both Jews and Gentiles in Khorol loved her. When in 1916 Grandmother died from tuberculosis, the whole town came to the funeral ceremony. I am not sure but I guess it was a traditional Jewish funeral and they followed all rules and rituals. Grandfather David was a pharmacist in Khorol; later he owned a drug store.

The Akselrod family had five sons and two daughters. The oldest son was David, born in 1880. David got married in the early 1900s and moved to live in Western Ukraine with his wife. Grandfather felt very lonely after the death of Grandmother and a year later, in the summer of 1917, he moved to live with David and his family. David and his father worked in their own pharmacy. David had a young son. But unfortunately, in the 1920s, gangs were raging all over Ukraine 3. I don’t remember exactly whether it was Petliura’s 4 gang or somebody else, but they murdered the whole family: Grandfather, David, his wife and his young son.

After David my father Yakov was born in 1885. After my father, Abram was born in 1887. He left Khorol and lived in Kharkov all his life. He worked at a mill and injured his hand badly. His hand was amputated and Abram, with only one hand left, became a carpenter. He made furniture. He had a lot of orders. Abram died in 1962. He had no family.

Iosif, born in 1988, also left Khorol and lived in Kharkov. All his life he worked as a barber. He had two wives, and the first one was Russian. From her he had a daughter called Dora, who is now living in Israel. Iosif died in the late 1960s.

After Iosif two sisters were born: Fenya in 1889 and Malochka in 1890. After they finished high school, they both moved to Kharkov. Fenya worked as a bookkeeper. She had two sons. In 1951 Fenya died from cancer. One of her sons is now living in Germany and the other in Australia.

Malochka [Malka] was the favorite of the family. She had a very cheerful nature. Soon after moving to Kharkov she married a merchant and became a housewife. They had a son. When their family went into evacuation, her husband fell in love with another woman and stayed with her. From evacuation Malochka returned to Kharkov together with her son and lived with him to the end of her life. She worked as a secretary and then as a bookkeeper. Malochka died in 1975.

The youngest child in the family was Mulya [Mikhail], who was born in 1892. Mulya followed in his father’s footsteps and became a pharmacist; after the Revolution he was the chief of the central pharmacy. He lived in Kharkov. Mulya was loved by everyone. He had a lot of friends and acquaintances; even people he did not know turned to him for help. Mulya never refused to help anyone. His daughter Polina is still living in Kharkov and works as a doctor. Mulya died in the late 1970s.

All children received secular education. All seven finished high school in Khorol and then got professional training. I don’t know how religious that family was. According to my father, his parents celebrated Jewish holidays and Sabbath. There was a synagogue in Khorol but I don’t know how often my grandparents and their children attended it. I know for sure they attended the synagogue though. My father even kept his tallit from those times. Later my father gave up religion and joined the Communist Party. When I finished school we dyed this tallit in red and sewed a beautiful costume for me. I take it as a sin now, but at that time we were all brought up as atheists; besides, I had nothing else to wear.

Father finished the carriage-making college in Khorol. He was a highly qualified carriage-maker. I think I still have his graduation diploma from that college somewhere. After graduation in 1903 my father left Khorol and spent four years abroad. He went to Argentina, France, Spain, and England to improve his skills and work with famous carriage-makers. In 1907 he returned to Khorol. He often joked that nowhere in the world he could find somebody like my mother, only in Khorol, and that’s why he stayed in that town. Father went to the same college again to acquire another profession. This time he acquired the profession of a wheelwright. This profession was considered a more difficult one than carriage-maker.

A lot of Jews lived in Khorol. They spoke a mixture of Yiddish and Ukrainian to each other and to their Gentile neighbors. Until their very old age my parents talked to each other in that mixture.

There was no anti-Semitism in Khorol at that time. There were no pogroms that were raging around Russia. All neighbors were friends. Jews and Gentiles helped each other. My parents never heard the word ‘kike’ there.

On 20th January 1910, my parents got married. I don’t know what kind of wedding they had, they never told me about it. In 1910 my elder sister Maria was born and in 1919 I was born. My parents also had a son, who was born in 1913, but he died as a baby. I don’t know where exactly in Khorol my parents lived at that time. In 1918, my sister Maria went to a Ukrainian school.

My parents welcomed the October Revolution. They were ordinary people and believed what they were told about the rule of workers and peasants. They were told that their lives would be better than under the tsar, so they hoped for it. I don’t know whether they took any part in the revolution. Father said he distributed leaflets. But there were practically no changes in Khorol after the revolution; people continued to live as they did before and raised their children.

With the beginning of the Civil War 5, gangs began to come to Khorol. The gang of Denikin 6 came, for instance. Our family ran into them twice. One time we ran directly into them. There was a landowner in Khorol. I don’t remember his name now. During pogroms he always gave refuge to Jewish families. So, when Denikin’s soldiers came to Khorol again, this landowner threw a great ball at his house and invited all officers of Denikin’s gang. On the upper floor music played and guests danced, while in the basement several Jewish families sat as quiet as possible. I was the only baby there. And when I began to cry, somebody pressed a pillow upon my face to suppress my crying so that I wouldn’t reveal our whereabouts. Since that time I have had problems with breathing.

Another incident took place after we left Khorol. Denikin’s gang entered the town and ordered all the Jews to come to the main square. They said those who would not come would be brought by force. My father’s younger brother Iosif went to that square too. By that time he had been married; his wife was a Russian woman, whom we loved very much – Aunt Antonina or Tosya. She was a beautiful woman. So, Aunt Tosya went to that square together with Iosif. A Ukrainian neighbor passed by, saw her and cried, ‘Tosya, why did you come here? You are Russian!’ An officer of Denikin’s gang heard that, approached Aunt Tosya, kissed her hand and wanted to lead her away from the square, but Aunt Tosya told him she wanted to share the destiny of her dear husband: whatever they wanted to do with him, the same they could do with her. When the officer heard that, he bowed to her and led both her and Iosif away from the square. A lot of Jews were shot in that square on that day.

Our dear Aunt Tosya died at a very young age – she only turned 34. She fell ill with tuberculosis and it could not be cured. It was in 1938. Some time later Iosif married for the second time. My family did not welcome his second wife, so we lost communications with him.

Move to Kharkov

In 1920, our family moved to Kharkov. I was one year old. In the beginning we lived in Sadovaya Street, but then we moved to Yaroslavskaya Street, into a good house. This house is still there. Yaroslavskaya Street is in downtown Kharkov. First we lived on the first floor. But I had pneumonia almost every two months. The doctor told my parents that I needed a lot of sunshine, while that apartment was a little dark. So, my parents changed it for a good apartment in the same house. It was a communal apartment 7, with neighbors. There were two rooms in it: 27 and 20 meters, and a huge balcony, maybe 25 square meters. In that communal apartment lived our family, my father’s sister Malochka and my mother’s brother Abram with his daughter Lyusya.

There was also a neighbor living there, a Ukrainian woman by the name of Antonina Sergeyevna Lukashuk. First she lived alone and later she gave birth to a son. I remember her bringing him, newly born, home from the hospital. And now he is a professor at the Moscow Academy of Sciences. Our relations with the neighbor were friendly. We had good neighbors in the yard too. In our house lived Jews, Russians, and Ukrainians. We all were friends and nobody cared who belonged to which nation.

My father made all the furniture in our apartment with his own hands. He was a carpenter/cabinetmaker. I don’t remember everything we had in the apartment, but I remember a royal piano, which was very big and good. We often had a lot of guests who had to sleep on it because of lack of space. My father also kept his carpenter’s bench in his bedroom because he had no separate workshop. So, some guests also had to sleep on this bench.

I did not go to kindergarten. I stayed home with my mother. I had no babysitter but my mother spent a lot of time with me because she had a housemaid to help her around the house. We had large rooms, and she cleaned them, cooked and washed. My mother’s character was strict. I don’t remember her hugging or kissing me. But she cared. She did her best to provide for us.

The material life of our family was hard in the beginning. Mother sewed nightgowns and bed sheets for us. After getting married, she did not work outside the house. She took good care of herself. She was really smart. She believed nobody outside the family should know about the family’s affairs. No neighbor ever heard from her about our difficulties. ‘Everything is fine, thank you,’ she would always say. My mother liked theater. When father was a member of the Kharkov city council, they had a box in the Opera Theater and my parents went to see every play. They also spent vacations together.

She was a very good mother because she never humiliated us, nor yelled at us. When I think of her, I may not feel the love of a daughter, but I sense great respect to her. My sister and I had freedom but under her control. My mother had a rule – not to buy anything bad. She said it was better to buy a little bit of something, but this something should be good. When I went to the market she told me, ‘Don’t buy anything cheap!’ I would buy the best apples, even if I could afford only two of them.

My father’s character was softer than that of my mother. If one of us got sick, it was father who gave us medicine, pet us on the head or told us fairytales. I can say that our father and mother traded their family roles. But their relationship was very good. At that time my father worked in the economy. He realized that he lacked serious education and so he entered the Kharkov Construction Institute. But when they began to study higher mathematics, Father saw that he could not understand a thing – and he quit. He did not regret it. After that, he was the director of the School of Factory and Plant Training for Hairdressers.

My school days

After we moved to Kharkov, my sister went to the third grade of a Russian school, and I went to the first grade of a Ukrainian school in 1927. At our school boys and girls studied together – a rare case at that time. When I was in the second grade, I went to a music school, which was not far from our house. I did not let my parents know I went there. I passed exams and began to study there. However, I did not study there for too long, only for three years, and then I quit music.

My favorite subject at school was mathematics. I was good at it. I did not have any bright talents, neither was I one of the best students. But I was a good one, and I was loved at school. We had a singing club at school, which later turned almost into an opera studio. We staged operas. I remember singing several roles in different operas. 

I remember the ceremony of joining the pioneers 8. It took place at a printing house where we were taken from school. There we repeated the oath of a young pioneer, ‘I, a pioneer of the USSR, in front of my comrades promise that I will firmly fulfill the commandments of Lenin…” I remember it as if it was yesterday. I was an active pioneer, the chairman of our pioneer unit. I was also an active Komsomol member 9. In those years Komsomol meetings were usually held at somebody’s houses. As a rule, our Komsomol meetings took place at our house.  

At school we always celebrated all revolutionary holidays. At home we celebrated them too. But the holiest day for our family was 20th January – the anniversary of my parents’ wedding. It was celebrated 59 times. And my father died before celebrating the 60th anniversary of their wedding. It was in 1970, while father died in 1969. It was our main holiday every year. We invited many guests to celebrate it with us. We did not celebrate any Jewish holidays, but Passover. On Passover, we bought matzah and cooked traditional food: fried eggs with matzah and chicken. It was just a family dinner with traditional Jewish food. Nobody said a prayer, or lit a candle and there was no traditional seder. 

Great Famine and Great Terror

I remember the famine of 1932–1933 10. I remember not only the feeling of hunger but also dead bodies in the streets. The bread store was not far from our house. There were constantly long lines for bread. When we went out of our house we always saw several dead people in the street. I remember it very well. I cannot say that our family suffered much from hunger. But there was great famine in Ukraine, and it was horrible. I will never forget those dead bodies.

I also remember stray children in 1929. They were orphans, whose parents had died. These children were always hungry with very poor clothing. In some places of the city the authorities wanted to pave the streets with asphalt, so there were big pots with tar in the streets, and this tar was being heated all day long. And at night, these homeless children climbed into the pots with leftovers of hot tar and slept there, in warmth.

The well-known commune of Makarenko 11 was located in Kharkov. Makarenko was a teacher who organized a school for homeless children. It was called a commune. When I later worked in the ‘Knowledge’ society, I organized a cycle of lectures entitled ‘Heroes of Makarenko’s Books.’ I invited former homeless children who finished Makarenko’s school and they shared stories about their life in the commune and after it. Many of them said the commune was their salvation. Among these people there were judges, doctors, directors of plants etc.

When I was still a student, repressions started 12. A Jewish man, Professor Pletskis taught Russian literature at our school. He was a bright teacher. He was arrested when we were still students. Later we learned that he was shot. I don’t know what kind of charges against him led to his execution. But at that time even an innocent joke or a word might have had most severe consequences. Perhaps he dared to read a story by one of the repressed writers to his students. People were arrested every day and every day they were removing books by writers that might have been popular and favored by the authorities a day before. One couldn’t even whisper the name of such an author after he was repressed.

In 1937 I finished school and entered the Foreign Languages Institute. Now I believe it was my mistake. I should have become a lawyer or a doctor according to my abilities. When I was already working I often spoke in court as a public advocate. It was a custom at the time. And I did very well. But languages, they are not my field of interest. Anyway, I passed exams easily and entered the French department. Just like at school, I joined the Komsomol committee of the Institute and sang at the institute’s club. 

We did not have many Jews at my department. Besides me, there was only one more girl, a very gifted student, Mira Kaplan. But at other departments there were many Jews. I don’t know the reason. I guess it was a mere flow of things and coincidences and no ethnic tensions.

Repressions continued. They did not touch upon my family. At the institute Komsomol meetings became very frequent. We often condemned ‘the enemies of people’ 13, that is, our co-students. It was scary. Sometimes such meetings lasted up to 2 or 3am. The best students were expelled from the Komsomol and from the institute. Then the KGB 14 arrested them. We did not even suspect that what we heard about their fault was lies. We believed everything we were told and voted unanimously for their expulsion. This is the greatest tragedy in life. Today, when I begin to sum up my whole life, I realize that every time I raised a hand at such a meeting I committed my heaviest sins.

At the institute I met my future husband, Alexander Serikov. I met him during a dance. Sasha was a student of the English department. He was four years older than me – he was born in 1915 – but he studied only one year ahead of me. In 1940 we got married. We had no wedding. We simply went to his relatives to Yeisk. His mother was a Hungarian Gypsy, and his father – a Cossack 15. His father was arrested and shot in 1938. Both Sasha and I could have suffered from that as well, but Sasha chose to keep it a secret. Thus, nobody in the institute knew that his father had been arrested. After his death he was rehabilitated 16.  

My parents received Sasha very well. They had no problem that he was not Jewish. By that time, my sister had been married for the second time and her husband was also Russian. Her first husband was Jewish, a guy from Khorol by the name of Yosya. My parents knew him and his family very well. My sister lived with him in Balakleya, Kharkov region. Then she met Nikolay Drogichinsky, fell in love wit him, divorced Yosya and married Nikolay. It was in 1933, and in 1934 their daughter Valya was born. My parents loved Nikolay very much, and he loved them too. Even when he and my sister also divorced and Nikolay lived in Moscow, every time he would come to Kharkov, he always visited my parents and brought flowers and candies. 

In 1941, I graduated from the Institute. On 20th June, I was given my diploma, and on 22nd June, the Second World War [cf. Great Patriotic War] 17 began. We learned about it on the radio, from Molotov’s 18 and then from Stalin’s speeches, at noon on 22nd June. Kharkov was not bombed yet; our lives were quite peaceful. But I remember the day when we learned about the war – it was the most horrible day of my life.  

We had a big backyard with good cellars for keeping foods. So, we used these cellars for bomb shelters. I was the chief there. I directed people where and when they should go to hide from bombs. I remember the first bombing raids. I think bombing raids on Kharkov began on 3rd August.

Leaving Kharkov after the outbreak of the Great Patriotic War

Evacuation from Kharkov began in the middle of August. My sister, her husband and daughter lived in the military town of Dongus, Russia. It was Chkalov region and now it’s Orenburg region. Nikolay worked there. They had a two-room apartment. My father decided we should go to live with them. At the end of August we left. It was unexpected for me, especially because my husband, Sasha, went to say goodbye to his mother and sisters before his call-up to the war. So, I had to go without him. We took a lot of things with us, even Mother’s sewing machine. The most interesting thing is that we sent it all with the luggage train, and it arrived safely about three months later.

My parents and I went together on a freight train. It was hard. We bought some foods and went to the toilet at the stations where the train stopped. Everyone understood that it was not a time for complaining. We were simply rescuing our lives. It took us two or three weeks to get to Dongus. The train was not to stop at that train station because Dongus was a military town and civilian trains never stopped there. But the machinist, on father’s request, slowed the speed of the train and we could get off.

We settled with my sister’s family. First only the six of us lived in their two-room apartment, then Mother’s young sister Tanya and her daughter joined us. At that time people’s attitude to the living conditions was simpler than today’s.
About a month later I began to work as a bookkeeper at a plant. Then I began to work at a local school, teaching the French language. I also gave private lessons of French to the military. My lessons took place in the evenings. My father was also working, so we had food cards and we were not too hungry. But I was pregnant at the time and I was hungry all the time. Most of all I wanted to eat something sweet. So, Aunt Tanya and I would run to the Officers’ House, buy some tea with a piece of sugar, drink the tea there and take the sugar home with us. Aunt Tanya also exchanged our clothes for food. She also exchanged Mother’s sewing machine for so much food that it ‘fed’ us for a whole month.

We kept corresponding with my parents’ relatives. Almost all of them evacuated safely. Only Aunt Fenya, mother’s sister, was killed. She lived at the old people’s home. Its inhabitants were evacuated on a ship, which was bombed by the Germans. My husband Sasha could not find me through the official service of search for the evacuated. Since Dongus was a military town none of its residents was on the list of the evacuated. But at that time I was also writing to mу friend from the institute who was evacuated to Khasavyurt. Sasha was a military translator who by luck was sent to Khasavyurt to work. There he met that friend of mine who gave him my address. Thus, he began to write to me too.

On 7th May 1942, I gave birth to a son, Sasha. Nikolay was given a cart at his work, on which he brought me to the hospital at three o’clock at night. There was no light, only a wick-lamp. The delivery was difficult, but my son was born healthy, weighing 4.2 kg. At the hospital I was nursing one more baby, whose mother had no milk. And on 18th August, my sister gave birth to her son Igor.

Settling in Kiev after its liberation

After the liberation of Kiev, at the end of 1943, Nikolay was transferred to work in Kiev. My sister and their children went with him. In April 1944, Nikolay sent a special invitation for us to come to Kiev. This time, the four of us went on the train, including my two-year-old son. There were rare bombing raids on our way.

Nikolay got a three-room apartment in Malozhitomirska Street, in downtown Kiev. We settled with them. My sister, Nikolay, Valya, Igor, my mother, father, my son and I lived there. Then Nikolay’s mother joined us. 

Sasha returned to Kharkov. We no longer lived together but remained friends until his death. In Kharkov Sasha was soon appointed the chief of the foreign languages chair of the Medical Institute. By the way, the famous surgeon Alexander Shalimov was his student. Later, when Sasha was diagnosed with stomach cancer, Shalimov – the best-known and talented surgeon in Ukraine – did the surgery on him. Sasha died on 23rd October 1982 in Kharkov.

In Kiev I worked as the Komsomol chief of the ‘Arsenal’ plant, then as the Komsomol chief of the Kiev conservatoire. But we did not stay in Kiev for long. The owners of our apartment came back. Nikolay and Manya got another apartment. We were left in our previous one, in an eight-square-meter room. We decided to move to Kharkov. It was in 1945. But our Kharkov apartment was not returned to us because nobody of our family fought at the front. There was such an order. So, we changed our room in Kiev for a 14-square-meter room in a communal apartment in Kharkov. In this room we lived up to 1961: Sasha, I and my second husband Semen of whom I will tell you later. From the middle of the 1950s, Igor, Manya’s son, lived with us in that room too.

Back in evacuation, in 1944, I became a candidate for the Communist Party. I wanted to join the Party very much; I believed every honest person should do that. But when we moved, my documents got lost. I received the copies only in 1948. Then I joined the Party in Kharkov. By the way, I got recommendation to the Party from Semen Naumovich, the director of the school I was working at and my future husband.  

Upon arrival in Kiev we learned about the Babi Yar 19 tragedy. We learned about it from newspapers, but it was nowhere mentioned that Jews were shot in Babi Yar. Every newspaper wrote about the shooting of Soviet civilians. None of our relatives was killed in Babi Yar. We added this event to the list of the fascists’ atrocities.

Returning to Kharkov

My favorite city, Kharkov, suffered much from the war. The center of this city was totally destroyed. Captive Germans worked with construction garbage and bricks. The city began to revive step by step, together with our lives. We were hungry; there were not enough food products or clothes. But after the victory we were full of optimism and lived with the hope for a better life. My father was appointed director of the factory for sterilization of hairdresser tools. Father worked there until retirement on pension. He also invented several new ways of sterilization of tools and received certificates for his inventions.

I went to work at school, teaching French. There, at school, I met my future husband. Semen Naumovich Litmanovich was the director of that school and a teacher of mathematics. He was its director even before the war. He was the youngest school director in Ukraine. Semen was born in 1913. He did not remember his parents. Very early he became an orphan and he grew up in the Jewish orphanage outside Nikolayev. Semen told me that in childhood he could speak only Yiddish. During the war Semen fought at the front and then returned to school.

We lived together for several years and officially registered our marriage only in 1974 before moving to Kiev. Semen easily entered our family. He had very good relationships with my parents and my son. Although, my parents loved my first husband more. Semen’s character was not very simple, but his main characteristics were decency and the feeling of duty. Semen loved my son Sasha very much and took care of him even after Sasha got married and had his own family.

In 1949, my son Sasha went to the Ukrainian school where I was working. But he found it boring to study there because he was ahead of his peers in development. In 1951, I was transferred to work at the Institute of Doctors’ Advanced Training. After his fourth grade I transferred Sasha to another school, a school for gifted children, which he finished successfully. He was never the best student in every subject. He liked physics and mathematics and paid absolutely no attention to humanities. However, he loved poetry very much. While in school, Sasha also studied at the theatrical studio at the Pioneers’ House. Its leader tried to persuade him to enter the Theatrical Institute. Sasha also liked painting. He was very good at painting and as strange as it may sound, this skill helped him a lot in his studies in the Aviation Institute. I tried to support Sasha in everything and let him choose his way independently.  

Anti-Semitic campaigns and life after Stalin’s death

From the events of those years I remember the Doctors’ Plot 20 and fight against cosmopolitanism 21. All the victims in this fight were innocent. But I realized it only later, in 1956, after the 20th congress of the Communist Party 22. Before that, we continued to believe that our country just had so many enemies.

In 1953, Stalin died. We cried very sincerely. I worked at the Institute of Doctors’ Advanced Training. I heard the news of Stalin’s death on the radio and my first thought was, ‘What is going to happen to us?’ Not to us as Jews, but to us all, the Soviet nation? We cried a lot. Later, when Khrushchev 23 unmasked Stalin’s cult, when we learned about the crimes of our authorities, my worldview began to change. But it was only the beginning of this comprehension. Much more about those times we learned during perestroika 24. I remained a member of the Communist Party, but I felt very ashamed of letting people deceive me for so many years. In 1990, I quit my Communist Party membership with no regret.

The creation of the State of Israel 25 did not influence us at all. I can’t say that we even thought about it. It was simply outside of our lives.

My family and my son’s life

In 1959, Sasha finished school and entered the Kharkov Aviation Institute. There was a very good physics teacher there, and Sasha got fond of theoretical physics. After his third year of studies at the Aviation Institute, he passed exams to University, the theoretical physics department, and was accepted to the third year there. For one year Sasha studied in both universities, and then he decided he would like to study at the Moscow Institute of Theoretic Physics, whose diplomas are highly regarded worldwide. Sasha entered that institute too.

There, he met Irina, who studied at the same institute. When they got married, Sasha was a sixth-year student and Irina – a fifth-year student. Irina came from the town of Izhevsk, Udmurtia. When Sasha graduated from the institute and Irina was a sixth-year student, in 1967, she gave birth to their son Igor. She went to her hometown for delivery, stayed there for two months and then returned to Moscow to finish her studies. She did not take any vacation from the university. 

In 1961, we received a two-room apartment. But Sasha soon moved to Moscow, so only the four of us lived there. I worked as a lecturer at the ‘Knowledge’ society and as a consultant in universities and research institutes. Soon, my parents began to get ill with different diseases. My husband and I were working, so we hired a woman who cooked for us and took care of my parents. My father died in 1969. My mother died in 1972. Both of them died in full consciousness, without any sclerotic phenomena.

Many people say that after the war anti-Semitism grew stronger, even at the official level. Neither I nor other members of my family experienced it. I worked at an ideological job, my father occupied a very high administrative position, my husband was a school director. My son was registered as Russian in his birth certificate, but in every form he wrote that his mother was Rozalia Yakovlevna Akselrod – a typical Jewish name, which clearly showed my nationality. None of this hindered him in life. Sasha graduated from the institute and entered a post-graduate course in Kiev, in the Theoretical Physics Institute under the Academy of Sciences. His scientific leader was Academician Davydov. At the age of 38 Sasha was awarded the title of Ph. D. People said he was very gifted. I guess he was.

My grandson, Igor, lived in Izhevsk till the age of three. Then, in 1970, he was brought to Kiev. Sasha immediately received a two-room apartment. But he and Irina both worked and it was hard for them to take care of the child. My husband and I lived in Kharkov until Igor had to go to school. By that time we both had retired on pension. Semen decided that we had to help raise Igor. So, in 1974 we moved to Kiev.

Igor was a difficult, unbalanced child. But he was very independent. For instance, without telling anyone, he passed exams to enter a mathematical school, the eighth grade. But he was not accepted there because he was registered with the nervous diseases clinic. However, without any help, he entered the physics and mathematics department of the University. Igor did not really like to study because he liked working independently. This boy just could not do something he was not fond of. He wanted to do only what he believed was necessary. He always saw the purposefulness of his parents and followed their example. Igor transferred from this department to the department of cybernetics. He and his three friends accomplished a project for an American company. Upon completion of this project, this company sent an invitation to work to all four of them. So now, Igor lives in California. Recently he got married – his wife is a Chinese girl from Hong Kong. May they be happy.

In the 1970s, Jews began to move to Israel. I never condemned those who were leaving but I could never understand why they were leaving. I think, every person should determine for his or her life what he or she needs. I have lived all my life in this country; both good and bad times in my life are linked with Ukraine. Here are the graves of the people who were dear to me – my parents, my husband, and my son. Here is where I want to die too.

In 1986, a great grief befell our family. My husband Semen died. Sasha and I buried him in the common, not the Jewish, graveyard. Irina could not come to the funeral because she was in Izhevsk. And in 1998 another grief came into our family. Sasha was diagnosed with stomach cancer, just like his father. The operation was made by Shalimov, the same surgeon who had operated his father. But the operation did not help, and in 1998, Sasha died. He was only 56 years old.

In 1999, a two-day symposium was organized on the subject of his works. Many scientists from other cities attended it. One academician told me, ‘I understand how hard it is for you now. But you are a happy mother. Thank you very much for giving us such a wonderful scientist as your son. Thank you.’ I can’t say that my loss became lighter after that, but I am glad that the memory of my son lives on in his works. 

Sasha is gone for four years now. I continue to live with Irina. She does not want to get married again. She says, ‘There will be no one like Sasha. Why should I get something less?’ For me, Irina is everything now. I certainly cook for her and look forward to her coming home every day. And while I give her something to eat or do the dishes, she shares with me what projects she is working on. She is now the chief of the Department of the State Committee for Information and Communications. I know this subject well, and she shares with me because she sees that it is the main thing to me. We eat and watch TV together and then go to the kitchen and talk until one o’clock in the morning. It is very important to me. Because it is easier to get irritated with each other than to understand each other. I don’t see myself as being her dependent. We simply live together as close people do. 

Life in independent Ukraine

Since the beginning of Ukraine’s independence I believe life in Ukraine has become better. The attitude toward Jews has been radically changed, not only at the official level, but also at the household level. I am very grateful to the Jewish community and Hesed 26 for the help they constantly provide to me in every field of life. Unfortunately, I don’t go out of the house too much for health reasons and I can’t attend lectures or concerts. It is becoming harder for me to read too. I only watch TV sometimes. But I know from people’s stories that they organize some very interesting events. In general, I like the way Hesed has it organized. This organization helps us survive. I get free food, eye drops, glasses. I am very grateful to the people who are doing this good thing.

I would not have repeated much of what I have done in life. But I would like many things repeated in my life: I had good parents, good husbands, good children and a very good daughter-in-law. I believe this is the main thing for me. I have never believed in God. I’ve never observed Jewish traditions or holidays. Regretfully, I don’t know them and I’ve never felt like following them anyway. This may be wrong, but I can hardly change anything now. This is the way our generation is in this country. We’ve lived a normal decent life. My grandson is also very good. And now I am expecting a great-grandson. When I look back at my life, I say to the God in whom I don’t believe, ‘Thank you, God, for everything you have given me!’

Glossary

1 Russian Revolution of 1917

Revolution in which the tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Empire and, under Lenin, was replaced by the Bolshevik rule. The two phases of the Revolution were: February Revolution, which came about due to food and fuel shortages during World War I, and during which the tsar abdicated and a provisional government took over. The second phase took place in the form of a coup led by Lenin in October/November (October Revolution) and saw the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

2 Keep in touch with relatives abroad

The authorities could arrest an individual corresponding with his/her relatives abroad and charge him/her with espionage, send them to concentration camp or even sentence them to death.

3 Gangs

During the Russian Civil War there were all kinds of gangs in the Ukraine. Their members came from all the classes of former Russia, but most of them were peasants. Their leaders used political slogans to dress their criminal acts. These gangs were anti-Soviet and anti-Semitic. They killed Jews and burnt their houses, they robbed their houses, raped women and killed children.

4 Petliura, Simon (1879-1926)

Ukrainian politician, member of the Ukrainian Social Democratic Working Party, one of the leaders of Centralnaya Rada (Central Council), the national government of Ukraine (1917-1918). Military units under his command killed Jews during the Civil War in Ukraine. In the Soviet-Polish war he was on the side of Poland; in 1920 he emigrated. He was killed in Paris by the Jewish nationalist Schwarzbard in revenge for the pogroms against Jews in Ukraine.

5 Civil War (1918-1920)

The Civil War between the Reds (the Bolsheviks) and the Whites (the anti-Bolsheviks), which broke out in early 1918, ravaged Russia until 1920. The Whites represented all shades of anti-communist groups - Russian army units from World War I, led by anti-Bolshevik officers, by anti-Bolshevik volunteers and some Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries. Several of their leaders favored setting up a military dictatorship, but few were outspoken tsarists. Atrocities were committed throughout the Civil War by both sides. The Civil War ended with Bolshevik military victory, thanks to the lack of cooperation among the various White commanders and to the reorganization of the Red forces after Trotsky became commissar for war. It was won, however, only at the price of immense sacrifice; by 1920 Russia was ruined and devastated. In 1920 industrial production was reduced to 14% and agriculture to 50% as compared to 1913.

6 Denikin, Anton Ivanovich (1872-1947)

White Army general. During the Russian Civil War he fought against the Red Army in the South of Ukraine.

7 Communal apartment

The Soviet power wanted to improve housing conditions by requisitioning 'excess' living space of wealthy families after the Revolution of 1917. Apartments were shared by several families with each family occupying one room and sharing the kitchen, toilet and bathroom with other tenants. Because of the chronic shortage of dwelling space in towns communal or shared apartments continued to exist for decades. Despite state programs for the construction of more houses and the liquidation of communal apartments, which began in the 1960s, shared apartments still exist today.

8 All-Union pioneer organization

A communist organization for teenagers between 10 and 15 years old (cf: boy-/ girlscouts in the US). The organization aimed at educating the young generation in accordance with the communist ideals, preparing pioneers to become members of the Komsomol and later the Communist Party. In the Soviet Union, all teenagers were pioneers.

9 Komsomol

Communist youth political organization created in 1918. The task of the Komsomol was to spread the ideas of communism and involve the worker and peasant youth in building the Soviet Union. The Komsomol also aimed at giving a communist upbringing by involving the worker youth in the political struggle, supplemented by theoretical education. The Komsomol was more popular than the Communist Party because with its aim of education people could accept uninitiated young proletarians, whereas party members had to have at least a minimal political qualification.

10 Famine in Ukraine

In 1920 a deliberate famine was introduced in the Ukraine causing the death of millions of people. It was arranged in order to suppress those protesting peasants who did not want to join the collective farms. There was another dreadful deliberate famine in 1930-1934 in the Ukraine. The authorities took away the last food products from the peasants. People were dying in the streets, whole villages became deserted. The authorities arranged this specifically to suppress the rebellious peasants who did not want to accept Soviet power and join collective farms.

11 Makarenko, Anton (1888-1939)

Soviet pedagogue and writer, in 1920-35 organizer and director of care institutions for homeless young people (the Maxim Gorky Work Colony near Poltava, and the Felix Dzierzhinsky Commune in Charkov). From 1935 he devoted himself largely to writing and popularizing his ideas. He was the creator of a method of collective education by involving the individual in the life of an organized, self-governing community of carers and their charges subject to a defined system of standards and cooperating to achieve targets (particular emphasis was placed on productive work), and guided by a communist ideology. He employed the principle of linking challenges with respect for the individual. He described his pedagogical research in works including An Epic in Education (1933-35), Lecture for Parents (1937), and Pennants on Towers (1938). The Makarenko system, applied in the USSR and other communist countries (in particular in the 1950s and 60s) has been an object of great interest and study in many countries, and has often been a subject of fierce debate.

12 Great Terror (1934-1938)

During the Great Terror, or Great Purges, which included the notorious show trials of Stalin's former Bolshevik opponents in 1936-1938 and reached its peak in 1937 and 1938, millions of innocent Soviet citizens were sent off to labor camps or killed in prison. The major targets of the Great Terror were communists. Over half of the people who were arrested were members of the party at the time of their arrest. The armed forces, the Communist Party, and the government in general were purged of all allegedly dissident persons; the victims were generally sentenced to death or to long terms of hard labor. Much of the purge was carried out in secret, and only a few cases were tried in public 'show trials'. By the time the terror subsided in 1939, Stalin had managed to bring both the Party and the public to a state of complete submission to his rule. Soviet society was so atomized and the people so fearful of reprisals that mass arrests were no longer necessary. Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union until his death in March 1953.

13 Enemy of the people

Soviet official term; euphemism used for real or assumed political opposition.

14 KGB

The KGB or Committee for State Security was the main Soviet external security and intelligence agency, as well as the main secret police agency from 1954 to 1991.

15 Cossacks

An ethnic group that constituted something of a free estate in the 15th-17th centuries in the Polish Republic and in the 16th-18th centuries in the Muscovite state (and then Russia). The Cossacks in the Polish Republic consisted of peasants, townspeople and nobles settled along the banks of the Lower Dnieper, where they organized armed detachments initially to defend themselves against the Tatar invasions and later themselves making forays against the Tatars and the Turks. As part of the armed forces, the Cossacks played an important role in Russia's imperial wars in the 17th-20th centuries. From the 19th century onwards, Cossack troops were also used to suppress uprisings and independence movements. During the February and October Revolutions in 1917 and the Russian Civil War, some of the Cossacks (under Kaledin, Dutov and Semyonov) supported the Provisional Government, and as the core of the Volunteer Army bore the brunt of the fighting with the Red Army, while others went over to the Bolshevik side (Budenny). In 1920 the Soviet authorities disbanded all Cossack formations, and from 1925 onwards set about liquidating the Cossack identity. In 1936 Cossacks were permitted to join the Red Army, and some Cossack divisions fought under its banner in World War II. Some Cossacks served in formations collaborating with the Germans and in 1945 were handed over to the authorities of the USSR by the Western Allies.

16 Rehabilitation in the Soviet Union

Many people who had been arrested, disappeared or killed during the Stalinist era were rehabilitated after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, where Khrushchev publicly debunked the cult of Stalin and lifted the veil of secrecy from what had happened in the USSR during Stalin's leadership. It was only after the official rehabilitation that people learnt for the first time what had happened to their relatives as information on arrested people had not been disclosed before.

17 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o'clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war. By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

18 Molotov, V

P. (1890-1986): Statesman and member of the Communist Party leadership. From 1939, Minister of Foreign Affairs. On June 22, 1941 he announced the German attack on the USSR on the radio. He and Eden also worked out the percentages agreement after the war, about Soviet and western spheres of influence in the new Europe.

19 Babi Yar

Babi Yar is the site of the first mass shooting of Jews that was carried out openly by fascists. On 29th and 30th September 1941 33,771 Jews were shot there by a special SS unit and Ukrainian militia men. During the Nazi occupation of Kiev between 1941 and 1943 over a 100,000 people were killed in Babi Yar, most of whom were Jewish. The Germans tried in vain to efface the traces of the mass grave in August 1943 and the Soviet public learnt about mass murder after World War II.

20 The Doctors' Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials

In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin's reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

21 Campaign against 'cosmopolitans'

The campaign against 'cosmopolitans', i.e. Jews, was initiated in articles in the central organs of the Communist Party in 1949. The campaign was directed primarily at the Jewish intelligentsia and it was the first public attack on Soviet Jews as Jews. 'Cosmopolitans' writers were accused of hating the Russian people, of supporting Zionism, etc. Many Yiddish writers as well as the leaders of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee were arrested in November 1948 on charges that they maintained ties with Zionism and with American 'imperialism'. They were executed secretly in 1952. The anti-Semitic Doctors' Plot was launched in January 1953. A wave of anti-Semitism spread through the USSR. Jews were removed from their positions, and rumors of an imminent mass deportation of Jews to the eastern part of the USSR began to spread. Stalin's death in March 1953 put an end to the campaign against 'cosmopolitans.'

22 Twentieth Party Congress

At the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 Khrushchev publicly debunked the cult of Stalin and lifted the veil of secrecy from what had happened in the USSR during Stalin's leadership.

23 Khrushchev, Nikita (1894-1971)

Soviet communist leader. After Stalin's death in 1953, he became first secretary of the Central Committee, in effect the head of the Communist Party of the USSR. In 1956, during the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev took an unprecedented step and denounced Stalin and his methods. He was deposed as premier and party head in October 1964. In 1966 he was dropped from the Party's Central Committee.

24 Perestroika (Russian for restructuring)

Soviet economic and social policy of the late 1980s, associated with the name of Soviet politician Mikhail Gorbachev. The term designated the attempts to transform the stagnant, inefficient command economy of the Soviet Union into a decentralized, market-oriented economy. Industrial managers and local government and party officials were granted greater autonomy, and open elections were introduced in an attempt to democratize the Communist Party organization. By 1991, perestroika was declining and was soon eclipsed by the dissolution of the USSR.

25 Creation of the State of Israel

From 1917 Palestine was a British mandate. Also in 1917 the Balfour Declaration was published, which supported the idea of the creation of a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Throughout the interwar period, Jews were migrating to Palestine, which caused the conflict with the local Arabs to escalate. On the other hand, British restrictions on immigration sparked increasing opposition to the mandate powers. Immediately after World War II there were increasing numbers of terrorist attacks designed to force Britain to recognize the right of the Jews to their own state. These aspirations provoked the hostile reaction of the Palestinian Arabs and the Arab states. In February 1947 the British foreign minister Ernest Bevin ceded the Palestinian mandate to the UN, which took the decision to divide Palestine into a Jewish section and an Arab section and to create an independent Jewish state. On 14th May 1948 David Ben Gurion proclaimed the creation of the State of Israel. It was recognized immediately by the US and the USSR. On the following day the armies of Egypt, Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Iraq, Syria and Lebanon attacked Israel, starting a war that continued, with intermissions, until the beginning of 1949 and ended in a truce.

26 Hesed

Meaning care and mercy in Hebrew, Hesed stands for the charity organization founded by Amos Avgar in the early 20th century. Supported by Claims Conference and Joint Hesed helps for Jews in need to have a decent life despite hard economic conditions and encourages development of their self-identity. Hesed provides a number of services aimed at supporting the needs of all, and particularly elderly members of the society. The major social services include: work in the center facilities (information, advertisement of the center activities, foreign ties and free lease of medical equipment); services at homes (care and help at home, food products delivery, delivery of hot meals, minor repairs); work in the community (clubs, meals together, day-time polyclinic, medical and legal consultations); service for volunteers (training programs). The Hesed centers have inspired a real revolution in the Jewish life in the FSU countries. People have seen and sensed the rebirth of the Jewish traditions of humanism. Currently over eighty Hesed centers exist in the FSU countries. Their activities cover the Jewish population of over eight hundred settlements.
 

Ninel Kunina

Ninel Aronovna Kunina
St. Petersburg
Russia
Interviewer: Inna Gimila
Date of interview: November 2001

Ninel Aronovna is a sunny person, she is very rotund and shining,
she smiles a warm smile and has kind eyes.

Evidently, early in her life she was a very beautiful woman,
as until now she retains fascination and charm,

which can rarely be found in a person, who has lived such a hard life.

My family

The war

After the war and later life

Glossary

My family

I, Ninel Aronovna Kunina, was born in Leningrad [today St. Petersburg] in 1929. I left Leningrad only twice: for one and a half years in the mid-1930s, when Daddy worked in Chelyabinsk, and then for one and a half years at the beginning of the 1950s, when after my graduation from the finance-economic technical school I, as a young specialist was sent to work 1 in Anapa in Krasnodar region [South of Russia, Black Sea coast]. The whole blockade I spent in Leningrad 2, not departing for any other place. I couldn’t imagine my life outside this city, just as I can’t imagine it now in any of the possible places of Jews’ emigration.

My genealogy according to my ancestors’ records and my personal recollections appears in the following way. The parents of my father, Aron Movshevich Aronson, Granny Itta Isaacovna Aronson and Grandpa Movsha Aronson lived in Kiev. Grandma Itta was a housewife. She died when she was approximately 37, when her daughter Freidochka was killed in the course of a massacre. This shocked the whole family, and my daddy Aron, while recollecting some events, used to say: ‘It was when Freidochka was so-and-so many years old…’ This massacre of 1905 was a famous one. Afterwards I read about it in books 3. Grandpa and Grandma lived in Kiev [today Ukraine] surrounded by anti-Semites. At that time Daddy was just an infant. When he was wounded in Kiev and people carried him towards home, neighbors yelled at Grandma: ‘Go out, your little kike is being carried around dead!’ I don’t know exactly, what the cause of Granny’s death was: the murder of her daughter Freida or her son’s serious injury.

The family of Grandma Itta lived very poorly. When Daddy was going to school, Grandma used to give him breakfast to take with him, and at school he boasted of how his mamma loved him as she spread a thick layer of butter on his bread. Only later Daddy realized, that it was not butter, but mashed potatoes. It was an unpretentious Jewish family. However, Grandma had an Astrakhan fur coat, there were a few silver glasses at home, and my daddy as the elder son inherited the largest silver one. Grandma had a long pearl necklace – you can see it on a photo I keep – but at the time of the pogrom she hid all valuables in the stove, and when pogrom-makers came, Grandma stoked the stove as she didn’t know that pearls could burn.

Grandma Itta had several sisters. I saw and poorly remember one of them; her name was Chasya. She was married to the jeweler Libenzon. Grandpa had a brother, Boris, a very rich person. He owned four small houses in Kiev. In 1977 I was in one of them, there was a big orchard near the house. The only daughter of Boris was called Bella, she fell in love with a poor, handsome man, and when her parents didn’t permit her to marry him, she ran off with him to a small nine-square-meter room, where his mother lived as well. Bella’s mother didn’t stand firm and after some time went to see her daughter. She saw that her little Bella, brought up by a governess, was washing the floor in this room, so she burst into tears and took her daughter and son-in-law to her place. Bella gave birth to a son, who was named Mikhail in honor of Grandfather.

After the death of Grandma Itta in 1915 four children remained, and my father among them. It was 1917. The eldest sister Berta was 18; she had been earlier married to a very pious elderly Jew, whose surname was Greben. And they were bringing up all the children of Grandma and Grandpa together: my daddy Aron, who was 14 at that time, Nina, who was ten, and Samuel, the youngest, who at that moment was only eight years old.

Grandpa Movsha died in 1921 at the age of 50. He wore a beard, so it seemed to my dad that he was a very old man. All his life Grandpa was a tailor, he sewed clothes. It was dangerous to stay in Kiev during the Civil War 4 and the whole extended family finally moved to Petersburg – this was in 1923. There, Berta and David’s daughter Ada was born.

My father was born in 1903 in Kiev; that is where he studied at school, his mother tongue was, certainly, Yiddish. At the age of 16 he left for the army. In the years of the Civil War Daddy at first was in the cavalry; I recollect, that he often narrated of how a horse saved the life of its equestrian, carrying him off on its back at the time of battle.

In 1920 Daddy became an aide-de-camp of the legendary commander Guy 5, it was the 84th squad of the rifle battalion, 36th rifle brigade. Daddy was 17, but he already was a valiant and famous person, a hero. There are photos, where Daddy can be seen at the feet of Guy, whose aide-de-camp he was. Guy’s wife was a Jewess and loved my father very much. My daddy’s friendship with Guy went on both after the Civil War and when Father married Mom.

In 1933 – by this time we lived in Leningrad – Daddy was sent to study at some regular courses in Moscow, and there we visited Guy. I was only four, but I remember a moment that surprised me. On the table in Guy’s study there were several telephone sets. It was a great surprise for me, because in Leningrad in our room we had a telephone, but its set was attached to the wall. But when in 1937 Guy was executed by shooting, Daddy did away with all the photos, reserving only collective ones, where it was difficult to recognize Guy. Father came back to Kiev after the Civil War safe and sound, and in 1923 the whole family left for Leningrad.

My father got acquainted with Mom in a pioneer camp 6. Dad was the camp director, and Mom was the matron. Dad chased after Mom for a year, took her to the Jewish club, where there were placards in Yiddish. Mom was born illegitimately and didn’t know any other language except Russian. But she read on a placard: ‘Proletarians of all countries unite!’ Dad didn’t believe that she really read it and asked her to prove it. Mom didn’t know that the written Jewish characters should be read from right to left, and in that way gave herself away. It is not known, if she was a Jewess or not, but Dad loved her very much. [Mrs. Kunina’s mother’s origin is unknown].

In October 1925 they got married and Dad moved to live with Mom, to her large family and to their big apartment. There in 1926 my brother Volodya was born, and one and a half years after their wedding Dad found a room near mother’s apartment, rented it, and in it we lived till 1954. Father’s extended Jewish family frowned upon his marriage, as he didn’t marry a Jewess, and for ten years they didn’t accept her into their family. Certainly, Mom was present at my father’s family get-togethers, but she always felt coldness and insincerity directed toward her by his relatives. We had to see all relatives often, as all of us lived in the same street, we visited each other at birthday parties, celebrated all major Jewish holidays.

However, later, after the war [1941-1945] 7 Aunt Berta and Mom kept in very close touch with each other. Apparently, the tragedy of war revised people’s attitude towards each other. Mom her whole life long felt herself as a Jew’s wife, took interest in culinary recipes of Jewish cuisine and knew from Aron all the Jewish holidays, which we always celebrated. So my brother and I were raised in a Jewish, but not religious atmosphere. We didn’t pray and didn’t eat kosher food, and felt an atmosphere of religiosity only when visiting Berta.

Berta always celebrated all the Jewish holidays with lighting of candles and prayers, as she was the wife of a religious man. Her husband, David Greben, had his own seat in the Synagogue 8, and every time we got together in their large 40-square-meter room in Leningrad with the whole big family to celebrate both Rosh Hashanah and Pesach. There were a large number of people: our family – my mom, me, a baby in Mom’s arms, the four-year-old Volodya, my brother, and Dad –, the family of Father’s brother Samuel; plus David had a brother, so he came too with his wife and their three sons; the family of my father’s sister Nina. Her husband Isaac died early, in 1936, and her whole life long she was good friends with her husband’s sister and brother. Thus at the table about 40 persons were gathered! There they sang Jewish songs and danced hand in hand with each other, Daddy danced putting his thumbs in his underarms. But all this was done quietly in order not to attract attention of the neighbors, and David, who was a pious Jew, never wore a beard or side locks.

Berta died in 1968 in Leningrad, a month after her husband David’s death. Her whole life long she worked as a dentist, but when they came back after evacuation – during the war they lived in Omsk – she started working as a passport-clerk in the housing office. Her husband didn’t work after the war but was retired; he died in April 1968 in Leningrad. Their daughter Ada, married name Ronina, studied in the Conservatory, and died in 1993.

My father’s younger sister Nina worked as an accountant in a theater, she died in Leningrad in 1975. Her husband, Isaac Berlin, worked as an engineer at the Kirov Factory in Leningrad, he died in 1936. Their son Yakov Berlin, who was born in 1935, now lives in Israel in the city of Arad.

My father’s younger brother Samuel had studied and worked as a chief of the shipping department at the Karl Marx Factory, he died in 1985 in Leningrad. His wife Nina died in Leningrad in 1969, their son Mikhail, who was born in 1933, now lives in Berlin, Germany.

The parents of my mom, Aleksandra Aleksandrovna Aronson, nee Lukina, were people of a very uncommon fate. They both were illegitimate children. Their mothers placed them both in an orphanage for foundlings in Petersburg. [It seems that the babies’ mothers were seduced and became pregnant, they had to give birth, because abortions were not possible at that time, and attempts of terminating a pregnancy often resulted in the woman’s death.]

Grandma was born in 1868. All foundlings were baptized in the Orthodox [Christian] faith; the tsarist government took care of these children. Trustee services placed them in families and regularly paid for their living. A state inspector came systematically and inspected if they treated the child well. A Finnish family took care of my grandma, though they themselves had seven children, and till the age of 16 she lived in a village not far from Petersburg. Great-grandma, while having placed Grandma in an orphanage, named her Evgenia and gave her the surname Savova. This resulted in the name Evgenia Savovna Savova, as in the orphanage they gave the patronymic according to the surname. Grandpa was called Aleksander, surname Lukin, which resulted in the name Aleksander Lukich Lukin. [It was a tradition that has remained till nowadays: for children whose father was unknown or it was undesirable to mention him, the patronymic was either simply invented or derived from the surname.]

My 16-year-old grandma was brought to Petersburg and got fixed up in a job as a housemaid for a ‘smolyany’ lady. Smolyany were the girls who studied at the Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens 9 in Petersburg-Petrograd [Petersburg was given the new name of Petrograd in 1914, and Petrograd became Leningrad due to Bolsheviks after Lenin’s death in 1924]. Then Grandma got married to another illegitimate child and the government gave them a nice marriage allocation for the wedding.

The new family was able to buy a horse and my grandpa started to work as a cabman, but in 1905 10, at the time of street disorders, Grandpa was lashed with whips and became disabled. Grandma alone worked as a servant for the millionaire Evreinova. Grandma had six children and Evreinova felt sorry for her, giving her leftovers from the kitchen. My grandparents’ family lived in a wooden house with stove heating, occupied one room, and the corridor and a small pantry were rented to lodgers, as housing was very expensive. Grandpa died long before my birth, I don’t know exactly when.

My mom Aleksandra was born in Petersburg in 1901. She completed a three-year school and spoke Russian. She studied only three years instead of eight or ten as usual, because she was the eldest daughter in the family and so had to bring up younger sisters and brothers. At the age of ten she learned to sew and knit and sold things she had made, supporting the family.

Before the revolution Mom worked at a sewing factory for a master, a very kind man, who granted fabrics to the workers and Mom was able to dress her sisters and brothers. In 1917 the master was arrested as a factory-owner, the factory was nationalized, but workers decided to intercede with the new government for mercy for this master. After being set free the master came to the factory and thanked his workers. After she married my father Mom worked as a salesperson in a food store, and she worked as a salesperson till she retired.

I was born in Leningrad on 10th August 1929. You have already realized that my father was a person with firm ideological principles, a Party and Soviet man. He gave my brother the name Vladimir after Vladimir Ilyich Lenin’s death in 1924. And I was given the name Ninel. Reading this name back to front you get Lenin.

Daddy never obtained any university education, he only studied at different courses, it is now called extension courses. Once he studied at such courses and obtained a certificate of a certain profession, another time he studied at other courses. He was good at doing a lot of things, a person with ‘magical hands’! Besides, he was a man of bright intellect. We never were hard up until he retired and didn’t experience noticeable want; we had everything necessary due to my father’s talents. Daddy was a very cheery and witty person as well as very kind. Everyone could turn to him with any question, and he didn’t refuse anything to anyone. He made with his own hands everything what he was able to do; if not, then he tried to buy it.

In 1930 the collectivization of agriculture was carried out in Vologda 11. Villagers were ‘driven’ to kolkhozes 12 and were forced to hand over cattle and household equipment to the general use under the direction of a special brigade of VKPB members. Father was a member of the VKPB [VKPB is CPSUB – the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Bolsheviks)] and one of those who participated in the collectivization. They were called the ‘twenty-five-thousand persons.’

I remember books by Stalin and Lenin in our house. Besides, Dad bought books by Pushkin 13 and other fiction and children’s literature for my brother and me.

My father was highly successful, and in 1934 he was sent to conduct industrialization in Chelyabinsk, where he served as an assistant director of the Chelyabinsk abrasive factory, and Mom for the first time in her life didn’t have to work for one and a half years. [This means, that Aron was sent to set up large-scale industrial enterprises in the vast territories of the Soviet Union]. She was very homesick, so in 1936 she took me and my brother and left for Leningrad. Two months later Dad was paid off in Chelyabinsk and joined us in Leningrad. And in 1937 the whole governing body of the Chelyabinsk abrasive factory was shot 14. In that way, being unaware of this at the time, Mom saved Daddy’s life.

Daddy was a supply agent; now it is called administrator. He procured everything that was needed for the governing body. While working as an assistant director of the Chelyabinsk abrasive factory, Dad visited Moscow and was at the reception of Ordzhonikidze 15, the Minister of Heavy Engineering, on account of supplying of factory workers. The point was that there were food difficulties in the country, famine, and there was a rigid order of supply depending on the number of workers. But Father wanted to obtain an improvement of the ration supply, which was permitted only in the presence of such-and-such a number [thousands] of workers. The crew size at this factory was much smaller, but Dad got the permit from the authorities to make an exception for this factory.

My father was forced to try to get from Ordzhonikidze the permit of making an exception several times, so he repeatedly had to go to Moscow and at long last Ordzhonikidze’s secretary was told: ‘You throw this Jew out, but he will get in through the window, so we are to comply with his request.’ In such a way Dad was able to supply workers with white bread loaves and other foodstuffs. When Ordzhonikidze killed himself, Daddy put his portrait into a black frame. Dad honored him very much and always remembered how Ordzhonikidze helped poor working people.

After one of his trips to Moscow my father stopped in Leningrad and took me with him to Chelyabinsk. It was a short detour on the way, but Daddy couldn’t refuse the possibility of taking me with him [Moscow and Leningrad are at a distance of 650 km from each other]. Mom and my brother Volodya couldn’t take me with them at once, as I was sick and lived at Grandma Evgenia’s. This was the first time I saw a train, and it seems we travelled for four days in a carriage with numbered, reserved seats. In Chelyabinsk Mom and my brother on horseback met us at the railway station.

It was a very cold winter and my brother got his nose seriously frostbitten. We didn’t get used to the intensely cold weather in the Ural winter, and though the summer there was warm, the winter nevertheless was very cold. In Chelyabinsk we lived in some apartment, I think it was an official apartment, which belonged to the factory. There was quite common state furniture in it, and there was not enough furniture, because we had not taken anything from Leningrad with us.

After his return from Chelyabinsk, Dad worked as a deputy director of some factory, where he was several times given places in a sanatorium [recreation center]. He went to these resorts alone, without Mom. I don’t know why, but he never spent his leave with us and Mom. At this factory he also dealt with the problems of the enterprise’s supply. Dad was given his own room in place of the one he had rented, and now we lived in a communal five-room apartment 16 with stove heating, in which gas was installed in 1939. But there was no bathroom in it. We lived relatively poorly. Five families lived in this apartment: three rooms were occupied by Jewish families, and two by Russian families. Before the war there was no anti-Semitism in our apartment. My parents were friends mainly with Russians. Mother again got a job at a food store and had to work all the time so my brother and I were brought up and educated by Grandma Evgenia. At the time I was already ten.

I was brought up by Grandma, as Mom worked a lot. How were we educated? I danced a lot at home, that was why parents placed me in a ballet school, but I didn’t turn out to be a ballerina. Then my parents bought my brother and me a violin, as they wanted my brother and me to study music, but this also was not successful. We had a gramophone, at that time it was very fashionable, and my parents bought a lot of records. I still keep them. My brother and I listened to music including Dad’s Jewish records. Daddy instilled in us love for animals: we had a dog, a German shepherd Ralph. There were fish in our fish-tank and white mice with red eyes, as I recall now.

Daddy bought my brother and me bicycles and the three of us rode out, we rode out along Zodchy Rossy Street [beautiful street in the center of St. Petersburg], there were no trams and cars at the time and we easily bicycled as much as we liked. On their days off my parents took us in the country, we visited Sosnovka [suburb of Leningrad] for picnics.

I went to a state school, together with my brother. My favorite subject was Mathematics. I remember my first teacher very well; she was loved by everybody. I spent summers at a pioneer camp twice, and exactly there I was caught with news about the outbreak of war. My brother was 14, I was eleven. All children were sent to the forest as planes were already flying; I don’t know now which ones, but in any case a plane in the air was a great event for us. In the evening parents took us home.

The war

In the winter of 1941 schools didn’t operate. My brother Volodya began to be an apprentice to a shoemaker, then to a driver; he earned additionally at the Karl Marx Factory as a driver. At the beginning of the war he was 14, he was sent to dig trenches in the environs of Leningrad, and on 8th August [1941] the German landing party force landed in Strelna [suburb of Leningrad] and barred the way for everyone who dug trenches. These people perished, no doubt. And Volodya alone was able to run away, he went around the Germans. You see, my brother knew these places well because every summer we were on holidays near Strelna. He came running home on the 10th of August. I remember it well, because it was my birthday, there were guests at home. And we led a relatively peaceful life, there were not even ration cards 17. My brother saw the German troops for the first time. He was so shocked with it that he came home running, had a little snack and slept for a whole day.

Father was taken away to the front immediately after the beginning of the war [on 22nd June 1941]. First he was at the Leningrad front, and in 1945 he reached Germany. In May 1945 their military unit was sent to the war with Japan 18, from where he sometimes wrote to us. I kept his postcards depicting pretty Japanese girls.

In Leningrad under the blockade Mother and I lived together. It is very hard for me to recall this. These dreadful bombardments, these destroyed houses, these hungry people, these huge trucks transporting naked corpses with cut-off soft body parts to the present memorial cemetery [the Piskaryovskoe Memorial Cemetery]. My whole maternal kinsfolk, except Granny Evgenia and Mom’s sister Zinaida and her daughter, perished, mainly from starvation. Zinaida’s husband was killed at the factory because of ration cards [i.e. someone killed him to get his ration cards]. He was an electrician and lived in barracks. He was found in spring, covered with coal, when his corpse had already begun to decay. Many close friends of ours perished on the Leningrad front. Boys from our school didn’t reach the front line [the foremost front line]; they were killed during the bombardment.

From September 1941 ration cards were introduced, and Volodya had to work, being a 15-year-old, in order to obtain a worker’s ration card, which allowed you to get twice as much bread. I recall his rate of 250 grams while I was given only 125 grams of bread. Winter came, and children didn’t go to school, because it was a terrible winter, terrible frost, without water and light. We went for water far away – some to the river Neva, some to water-pumps. We had stove heating at home: before the war, Dad had stored up firewood, and we learned to saw it into small blocks. Mom bought a little metal hot plate, we warmed ourselves with it and cooked our meals on it. We certainly didn’t have electric light, but we lived in the center of the city, and in the Ligovsky Prospekt near Moskovsky railway station there was a bread-baking plant, which had its own electric power station. We missed electric light and walked there as if for an excursion to look at the lit up electric light bulbs of the plant.

My mom worked at a store on the outskirts of the city. We didn’t starve, but there was no urban transport running. She lived near the store – it was called ‘she was under barracks conditions’ – and came home seldom, in order to bring us food and to make certain that my brother and I were alive. Sometimes I went to her work place, where we slept on the boxes and in the morning, when the store opened and the sales assistants began to distribute foodstuffs by coupons, we, the children, were seated at the table to glue these coupons on the sheets of paper, because they had to give a report on the foodstuffs.

By spring Mom rented a room not far from the store, and I began to work often in the store, gluing coupons. There were a few dreadful episodes. Once I was walking along the street and heard a dreadful scream of a child. A few men and I stepped out at this scream and saw that a woman was eating a living child. It was not just dreadful, it was so horrifying, that I simply can’t talk about it. Another day I went on foot to Mom’s work and heard hasty steps behind me, turned around and saw that a tall, very slim man wanted to come up to me. He was dystrophic, utterly sick. I was short for my age, because children at that time didn’t grow, but not starved, so I was strong enough to run away from him.

In spring trams were running and I began to visit Grandma Evgenia, who already wasn’t getting up because of asthenia. She was saved by the fact that for a coupon one bottle of vodka was given per month. She told me that she kept the bottle in her bed, and when she felt frozen, one drink of vodka warmed her up and she revived. Coming back home from Granny I went by tram, a bombardment was launched. I was afraid of bombings very much. All people rushed out of the trams and ran under the houses’ arches, stood there until they would announce the end of the bombardment through loudspeakers. Those loudspeakers are present even now in the old districts of our city.

At that time I saw the director of my mom’s store, a tall handsome man, who went off, not waiting till the announcement of the end of the bombardment. Other people also went, and I followed them. It was right near Liteiny Bridge. When I had passed a part of the bridge, a powerful explosion sent that part of the bridge into the Neva River. I hurried as much as possible, but the grown-ups were far away, trams ceased to work and all people were going on foot. I walked for about ten kilometers. I came to Mom’s work place and saw her crying, then she began kissing me. Mom usually was cold and never kissed me. I asked her what had happened; it turned out that her director had come back earlier and had told her, that I was in the Neva with that part of the bridge.

In spring 1942 schools opened again, I got acquainted with the daughter of my mom’s female colleague. We were friends, studied in the fifth grade, and we had only one bag for both of us. We also had no clothes. Americans sent us packages with clothes, and stockings, only of white color, fell to my share. I, a twelve-year-old, decided to dye them blue, so I wore blue stockings. Instead of a coat I asked Mom to buy me a quilted jacket, which was very warm.

In the summer of 1943 Mom took me, a 13-year-old, on the staff, as an apprentice sales person. At school there were holidays, but I worked at the store all the same. But now I had to go for work by eight o’clock in the morning and left at ten o’clock in the evening. I was so desperate to sleep. What work could they assign to a 13-year-old girl? I had the job to deliver buckets with water to women, who were storing up peat for heating, they dug peat straight out of earth. It was very hot there and peat glowed, igniting spontaneously. And another time, when cabbage leaves were brought to the store, I had to sell these leaves. At the end of summer I sold aerated water with saccharin. From the 1st of September I went to school. I wasn’t awarded with a medal ‘For the Defense of Leningrad,’ because I didn’t have a job before January of 1943. Such an unfair law!

After the war and later life

In January 1944 Volodya went away to the front and reached Prague. He was sent to the Far East and in this corner of the world he could have met our father, but he didn’t, because Father was not given the address of his son’s military post. After the end of the war, from September 1945 till October 1947, all the young armed forces personnel took part in the rebuilding of the destroyed houses in various cities. In October 1947 we received my brother’s letter from the hospital, where doctors had diagnosed his pulmonary tuberculosis only when he was expectorating with blood [that is to say too late]. He was demobilized, Daddy borrowed money from his sister in order to bring his consumptive son home, from the hospital of Yoshkar-Ola to Leningrad.

In Leningrad foodstuffs were given by ration cards till December 1947, later this was abolished. Having been in hospital for some time, my brother was discharged and got a job as a truck driver. He worked a lot, as he needed a high-calorie diet. At this time we were living on the outskirts of the city, now it is a district near Udelnaya metro station. Mom bought a piglet, fattened it up, in such a way my brother received fats, lard and pork.

In 1948 my brother got married, but his daughter was born two weeks after his death. He died of tuberculosis, because at that time there was no penicillin, by means of which this disease can be cured now, and the doctors failed to save him. He was 23. Every day Mom told me, ‘I shall hang myself all the same, I don’t want to live without m son.’ She couldn’t get over her son’s death. Nothing happened to her, of course we did everything to assuage and support her. Mom died much later, in 1983.

After the war I continued to study at school, and at the time I strongly felt anti-Semitism from the part of my classmates and from the part of my teachers as well. Back then there were continued repressions and search for ‘enemies of the people’ 19, and I was the only Aronson in the class [that is to say she was the only Jewess]. In 1947 I left school after the ninth grade, without having completed my studies for one and a half years. I was 18, I was now a grown-up girl and couldn’t allow such an attitude towards myself. I was given a school progress record and information paper instead of a diploma and certificate. Until now recollections of that time make me sick.

In 1947 I entered the finance-economic technical school. Before the beginning of my studies I went to Estonia with a relative, who had an acquaintance there, a Finn, who was married to an Estonian. Mom gave me fox fur so that I could barter it for foodstuffs. Moreover, we had to work, it was the hardest time, people mowed rye, and we bound sheaves with other workers. The master paid us well, for one workday he gave us a bag of potatoes. Since we were not able to take it with us, because for a week we got seven bags of potatoes, we bartered it for butter and brought home seven kilograms of creamy butter. There was no food, there was starvation, and for us it was great luck.

I was trying hard to work well, I was young and had no practical skills, and as a result I greatly strained the tendons of my right hand. And when I went to study on the 1st of September, for some time I could not write at all. At the technical school I felt no anti-Semitism, despite the fact that we were ‘one and a half Jewesses’ – I was half Jewish and Fira Trostinetskaya was a pure Jewess. She was my, well, not exactly a friend, but we maintained very friendly relations with each other. Now she lives in Germany.

In 1950 I successfully graduated from the technical school and right away passed the exams for a financial economics institute, the department of instruction by correspondence, as according to the law I had to work three years in a certain place, where the technical school sent me after graduation. I was afraid of this assignment, because leaving my mom was frightful for me and something I was not used to. I was sent to work in the town Anapa in Krasnodar region. I was an inspector of state revenues in the finance department of some town district. [She worked and studied at the same time in order to earn her living]. I worked there for a year; we raised taxes from the state enterprises. In our department there was a sub-unit, which was engaged in tax collection from the population. Taxes were levied on every tree that was growing in your garden and on every animal – sheep, chickens. And if you did not have any hens you had to hand over eggs. Go to the market and buy eggs. And pay tax with these eggs!

Under Stalin it was an awful work, it was just like serfdom! Once I was sent to help the tax inspector to raise taxes from the population. And people let loose dogs upon us in order to prevent us from entering the house, as they had no money to pay the taxes. And these taxes were required for the constructions of Communism Tsimlyanskaya GES. [GES is a Hydroelectric Power Station, was constructed in 1953, is situated on the river Don; Tsimlyanskaya GES generates electricity for the cities of the South of Russia, in the town of Tsimlyansk.]

I was nearly killed there! It was the period of vintage. In this period it was necessary to gather grapes of certain sweetness; for that people were recruited from everywhere, from the whole Soviet Union. And naturally there were criminals too. I was sent to a sovkhoz 20 together with a male cashier, who paid out wages to the sovkhoz workers, and I collected tax right there while they had money, in order to get from them at least something. And the cashier himself was originally from this ‘stanitsa’ [village]. Moreover, salary payment was carried out late in the evening, because during daytime people were working in the fields, cut off bunches of grapes.

The father of this cashier, a native of the village, came up to him and warned him not to go home, as he heard a conversation that some persons wanted to rob the cashier. He asked, ‘Do you have any weapons?’ But the cashier didn’t take a weapon with him, and he couldn’t just not go home, as his little children were staying there. And the cashier and his wife said, ‘I shall go home in any case, even if they may kill me.’ But I didn’t want to die, I was only 20. Then the father of this cashier said, ‘Ride in a roundabout way!’ It was a detour of 20 kilometers. We went on horseback, he rode the horse hard and we managed to escape from these ‘zaks.’ [Zak: short for zaklyuchenny – prisoner in Russian. Former prisoners, even after their release, are sometimes called ‘zaks,’ this epithet sticks to some criminals for their whole life, they say: ‘He is a former zak.’]

When I came to the town [Anapa] and gave a report of my business trip, the chief said to me, that I had collected less money, and I said to him in response, that I would never make such a business trip again, as I was a young specialist and had to work only in my field of specialization and not to collect taxes from the residential population. These were very audacious words, the chief could have discharged me, but everything turned out all right.

I was a second-year student in the institute, and in spite of the fact that I had a diploma of a financier after the technical school, I was refused employment everywhere. It was 1951, the very height of anti-Semitism. And only in February of 1952, by knowing the right people, by way of several people I could meet the deputy director of the plant ‘Svetlana’ Petrov. During the blockade of Leningrad between 1941 and 1944 he was a simple engineer, and one cook of this plant, a Jewess, fed the weak and hungry people, among which was this engineer. He turned out to be talented and became the deputy director of the plant. And when this cook, a pensioner as well, addressed him with the request to give a job to some Jew, he did not refuse her. In such a way I, a specialist with an incomplete university education, began to work at the plant as a tester of measurement instrumentation; it was merely a worker’s position instead of a fiancier’s position.

My female chief was an anti-Semite and tried to get rid of me; I was advised to address the chief of the special design office, where the planning department was, led by a Jew. He took me on in the position of a technician, though I was the only person with special economic education. And when at the end of 1952 my dad was arrested, I stayed at work in the evening and shared my trouble with him. His name was Naum Efimovich Ostrovsky. He ordered me to tell the ‘First Department.’ [‘First Department’ or ‘Special Secret Department’ employees had access to state secrets of the defense and other industries, they couldn’t go abroad for ten and more years, on the other hand their salary was a bit higher than that of ordinary employees.] Our plant belonged to the electronic industry, and everything was classified as secret. I refused, then my chief said, ‘You did not tell me anything, and I don’t know anything.’

The Doctors’ Plot 23 in the USSR affected us marginally. My paternal relative, a doctor/gynecologist, Mikhail Kogan, was arrested, his family lived on the poor salary of his wife. Relatives feared to communicate with them. In March 1953 Stalin died. All of our acquaintances were sad about Stalin’s death. And my chief Ostrovsky suffered in the following way: in the evenings he taught political economy at the institute, and at this time the textbook of political economy was first published, and in the circle of his colleagues at the plant he said, ‘It’s a pity, that this textbook was not checked by Stalin.’ One of the colleagues reported to the Party Committee, that Ostrovsky ‘demoralizes the Party’ by saying that ‘even a textbook cannot be corrected by anybody except Stalin.. Ostrovsky was expelled from the Party, discharged from his work, and he died at the age of 49.

In our design office there were a lot of Jews, they got into the plant in the following way: straight away after the war Jews had an opportunity to get into institutes, and upon their graduation from an institute, according to the law, they had to be placed in a job. There were not enough competent specialists, and factories submitted their claims to the institutes, which were called ‘raznaryadky,’ in order to get a certain number of specialists. Thus Jews began to get even into the closed factories 22. At this design office there was a very industrious and gifted engineer, who acquainted me with his brother, who later became my husband.

My husband Vladimir 23 or Velvel Kunin was born in 1924 in the town of Nikolaev of Odessa region [today Ukraine]. He didn’t go to the front because of myopia. At the beginning of the war he was 17. My husband’s father took him to Kirov region into evacuation, where there was the only veterinary institute. Volodya completed the institute and upon his return from evacuation entered the Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, the Physics and Mathematics Department, became a Physics teacher first at school, and then at the radio-polytechnic school. My husband was a very good person. I don’t want to tell you anything more except some general things. This is our personal life. Everything was OK with us, we were happy. He died. For me life goes on. He had poor eyesight. In evacuation he studied to be a vet. And who needs vets in Leningrad? When he arrived in Leningrad, he started to study for another profession!

In January 1961 our son Leonid was born. Now he lives in Petersburg, he married a Russian woman, but they don’t have children together. I gave birth to Leonid at the age of 31. When Lenya grew up, I asked my husband to change his name from Velvel to Vladimir, as my son needed to receive a passport, but with such a patronymic –Leonid Velvelovich – at that time he wouldn’t have been taken into the Military Institute, which was his dream when he was 16 years old. But then he was taken in with the patronymic Leonid Vladimirovich.

Among my friends there were a lot of Jews, and once I was taken to the synagogue at the holiday of Simchat Torah. And an elderly woman came up to one of our boys and began to propose her daughter to him as a wife. And then she complained, that she had a nephew, and whereas he was clever, and good, and kind, and whereas he was so outstanding on the whole, who was his wife? Natashka! [meaning that she was a Russian girl, as Natasha is a Russian name]. We laughed, of course.

In general I rarely went to the synagogue, as it wasn’t safe to go there 24. So we often got together at the home of someone of our friends. There we danced a lot and it was great fun.

After the war in Israel in 1967 25 we had a proverb: ‘Don’t beat kikes, but beat in a kikish style.’ We never traveled to Israel but a lot of people from the plant departed [emigrated for permanent residence]. My friends left. I loved them, I took an interest in their fate, but I immediately told them not to write to me, as my son was studying at the military college and I was still working 26. I was given the telephone number of elderly people who were in contact with them, who corresponded with them, and I got to know about their life from these people. [The situation in the Soviet Union was such, that if you had friends or even more so ‘relatives abroad,’ you would be considered a real spy, recruited by a foreign secret service, and you would be immediately dismissed from work, or they wouldn’t admit you to university and in every possible way the authorities would put obstacles in your way to a successful life. All people kept secret the existence of friends, who had left for foreign countries.]

When Soviet troops were in Hungary 27, there was a famous journalist from Moscow, comrade Borzenko. And one of our acquaintances from Leningrad, let us call him Sidorov, while understanding that we were misinformed, wrote a letter to Moscow with the following content: ‘If you see that our troops are met well by the residential population, then you are a fool; and if you see that our troops are met with animosity but write the opposite, then you are a scoundrel.’ He addressed it like this: ‘Moscow, to the journalist Borzenko.’ There was no signature. This Sidorov was a prominent scientist, headed a large laboratory, often drank too much, and, certainly, in a state of drunkenness dared to write such things.

Six months passed, he was called to the ‘Big House’ and was asked if he had written a letter to Borzenko. Plenty of time had passed, the hangover had passed, and Sidorov forgot everything and began to deny it. Then he was shown his letter and had to recall everything. Sidorov was a smart man and asked, ‘What am I to do?’ It was impossible to deny the charge. But times had changed 28, people were no longer put in prison, and he was offered to point out the reason for such a sentiment: ‘We have often listened to the BBC’s broadcast, The Voice of America 29, I have lost control of myself and this case happened...’ At work he was removed from the leadership of the laboratory and became a junior research fellow with a significant loss in salary. And his wife told him, ‘You will not drink cognac, you will drink vodka now!’

My husband died in 1999 at the age of 75. We lived a happy life. Now I am visiting Hesed 30, I am a volunteer and help those, whom I can help with something. I have a lot of friends. Certainly, I have become accustomed here to the Jewish life. I visit the synagogue on major holidays. I go to concerts, which are arranged by the Jewish community. But I remain an irreligious person , I only began to believe in God, and I pray to myself and not in the temple.

Glossary:

1 Mandatory job assignment in the USSR

Graduates of higher educational institutions had to complete a mandatory 2-year job assignment issued by the institution from which they graduated. After finishing this assignment young people were allowed to get employment at their discretion in any town or organization.

2 Blockade of Leningrad

On September 8, 1941 the Germans fully encircled Leningrad and its siege began. It lasted until January 27, 1944. The blockade meant incredible hardships and privations for the population of the town. Hundreds of thousands died from hunger, cold and diseases during the almost 900 days of the blockade.

3 1905 Russian Revolution

Erupted during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, and was sparked off by a massacre of St. Petersburg workers taking their petitions to the Tsar (Bloody Sunday). The massacre provoked disgust and protest strikes throughout the country: between January and March 1905 over 800,000 people participated in them. Following Russia's defeat in its war with Japan, armed insurrections broke out in the army and the navy (the most publicized in June 1905 aboard the battleship Potemkin). In 1906 a wave of pogroms swept through Russia, directed against Jews and Armenians. The main unrest in 1906 (involving over a million people in the cities, some 2,600 villages and virtually the entire Baltic fleet and some of the land army) was incited by the dissolution of the First State Duma in July. The dissolution of the Second State Duma in June 1907 is considered the definitive end to the revolution.

4 Civil War (1918-1920)

The Civil War between the Reds (the Bolsheviks) and the Whites (the anti-Bolsheviks), which broke out in early 1918, ravaged Russia until 1920. The Whites represented all shades of anti-communist groups - Russian army units from World War I, led by anti-Bolshevik officers, by anti-Bolshevik volunteers and some Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries. Several of their leaders favored setting up a military dictatorship, but few were outspoken tsarists. Atrocities were committed throughout the Civil War by both sides. The Civil War ended with Bolshevik military victory, thanks to the lack of cooperation among the various White commanders and to the reorganization of the Red forces after Trotsky became commissar for war. It was won, however, only at the price of immense sacrifice; by 1920 Russia was ruined and devastated. In 1920 industrial production was reduced to 14% and agriculture to 50% as compared to 1913.

5 Bzhishkyan, Hayk (1887-1937)

Also known as Guy Dmitrievich Guy, was a Soviet military commander of the Russian Civil War and Polish-Soviet War. He was twice awarded with the Order of the Red Banner; in 1919 for battles in the Volga Region of 1918 and in 1920 for the Polish campaign. On July 3, 1935 he was arrested and accused of "participation in an anti-Soviet terrorist organization" by the Military Collegium of the Supreme Court of the USSR on December 11, 1937 and shot the same day. His books were declared politically harmful and banned. He was rehabilitated on January 21, 1956. (Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayk_Bzhishkyan)

6 All-Union pioneer organization

A communist organization for teenagers between 10 and 15 years old (cf: boy-/ girlscouts in the US). The organization aimed at educating the young generation in accordance with the communist ideals, preparing pioneers to become members of the Komsomol and later the Communist Party. In the Soviet Union, all teenagers were pioneers.

7 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o'clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war. By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

8 Big Choral Synagogue in St

Peterburg: Built in 1893, its Grand Hall is designed for 1200 parishioners. In the early 20th century, the rabbi was David Kazenelenbogen (1850-1931), he often asserted Jews’ rights before the government, struggled against their assimilation. After the Bolshevik revolution in October 1917 and till his death he was practically the only rabbi in Petrograd-Leningrad. The Jewish city commune experienced continual repressions from the authorities, it was winded up in 1929, the synagogue’s property was brought out in 1922, and in 1930 the synagogue was closed.

9 The Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens

A women’s educational institution, set up by Empress Catherine the Great in 1764 and closed in the days of the revolution of 1917.

10 1905 Russian Revolution

Erupted during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, and was sparked off by a massacre of St. Petersburg workers taking their petitions to the Tsar (Bloody Sunday). The massacre provoked disgust and protest strikes throughout the country: between January and March 1905 over 800,000 people participated in them. Following Russia's defeat in its war with Japan, armed insurrections broke out in the army and the navy (the most publicized in June 1905 aboard the battleship Potemkin). In 1906 a wave of pogroms swept through Russia, directed against Jews and Armenians. The main unrest in 1906 (involving over a million people in the cities, some 2,600 villages and virtually the entire Baltic fleet and some of the land army) was incited by the dissolution of the First State Duma in July. The dissolution of the Second State Duma in June 1907 is considered the definitive end to the revolution.

11 Collectivization in the USSR

In the late 1920s - early 1930s private farms were liquidated and collective farms established by force on a mass scale in the USSR. Many peasants were arrested during this process. As a result of the collectivization, the number of farmers and the amount of agricultural production was greatly reduced and famine struck in the Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus, the Volga and other regions in 1932-33.

12 Collective farm (in Russian kolkhoz)

In the Soviet Union the policy of gradual and voluntary collectivization of agriculture was adopted in 1927 to encourage food production while freeing labor and capital for industrial development. In 1929, with only 4% of farms in kolkhozes, Stalin ordered the confiscation of peasants' land, tools, and animals; the kolkhoz replaced the family farm.

13 Pushkin, Alexandr (1799-1837)

Russian poet and prose writer, among the foremost figures in Russian literature. Pushkin established the modern poetic language of Russia, using Russian history for the basis of many of his works. His masterpiece is Eugene Onegin, a novel in verse about mutually rejected love. The work also contains witty and perceptive descriptions of Russian society of the period. Pushkin died in a duel.

14 Great Terror (1934-1938)

During the Great Terror, or Great Purges, which included the notorious show trials of Stalin's former Bolshevik opponents in 1936-1938 and reached its peak in 1937 and 1938, millions of innocent Soviet citizens were sent off to labor camps or killed in prison. The major targets of the Great Terror were communists. Over half of the people who were arrested were members of the party at the time of their arrest. The armed forces, the Communist Party, and the government in general were purged of all allegedly dissident persons; the victims were generally sentenced to death or to long terms of hard labor. Much of the purge was carried out in secret, and only a few cases were tried in public 'show trials'. By the time the terror subsided in 1939, Stalin had managed to bring both the Party and the public to a state of complete submission to his rule. Soviet society was so atomized and the people so fearful of reprisals that mass arrests were no longer necessary. Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union until his death in March 1953.

15 Ordzhonikidze, Grigoriy Konstantinovich (1886-1937)

Ordzhonikidze was appointed to the Politburo in 1926, but by 1936 Stalin began to question his loyalty; specifically when he discovered that Ordzhonikidze was using his influence to protect certain figures that were under investigation by the NKVD. Meanwhile, rumors had been spreading that Ordzhonikidze planned to denounce Stalin in his speech at the April 1937 Plenum. Ordzhonikidze was found dead before he could make his speech; his death was ruled a suicide. According to Khrushchev’s memoirs, Ordzhonikidze revealed to Anastas Ivanovich Mikoyan (a fellow Caucasian Party member) the night before his suicide, that he could no longer deal with what was going on in the Party, namely the arbitrary murders of Party members.

16 Communal apartment

The Soviet power wanted to improve housing conditions by requisitioning 'excess' living space of wealthy families after the Revolution of 1917. Apartments were shared by several families with each family occupying one room and sharing the kitchen, toilet and bathroom with other tenants. Because of the chronic shortage of dwelling space in towns communal or shared apartments continued to exist for decades. Despite state programs for the construction of more houses and the liquidation of communal apartments, which began in the 1960s, shared apartments still exist today.

17 Card system

The food card system regulating the distribution of food and industrial products was introduced in the USSR in 1929 due to extreme deficit of consumer goods and food. The system was cancelled in 1931. In 1941, food cards were reintroduced to keep records, distribute and regulate food supplies to the population. The card system covered main food products such as bread, meat, oil, sugar, salt, cereals, etc. The rations varied depending on which social group one belonged to, and what kind of work one did. Workers in the heavy industry and defense enterprises received a daily ration of 800 g (miners - 1 kg) of bread per person; workers in other industries 600 g. Non-manual workers received 400 or 500 g based on the significance of their enterprise, and children 400 g. However, the card system only covered industrial workers and residents of towns while villagers never had any provisions of this kind. The card system was cancelled in 1947.
18 War with Japan: In 1945 the war in Europe was over, but in the Far East Japan was still fighting against the anti-fascist coalition countries and China. The USSR declared war on Japan on 8 August 1945 and Japan signed the act of capitulation in September 1945.

19 Enemy of the people

Soviet official term; euphemism used for real or assumed political opposition.

20 Sovkhoz

State-run agricultural enterprise. The first sovkhoz yards were created in the USSR in 1918. According to the law the sovkhoz property was owned by the state, but it was assigned to the sovkhoz which handled it based on the right of business maintenance.

21 Doctors’ Plot

The Doctors' Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin's reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

22 Closed factories

Secret ammunition establishments, factories, which worked for the army and for the defense of the country. These could be weaving-mills, which produced camouflage clothes, design offices, which designed ammunition equipment and so on.

23 Common name

Russified or Russian first names used by Jews in everyday life and adopted in official documents. The Russification of first names was one of the manifestations of the assimilation of Russian Jews at the turn of the 19th and 20th century. In some cases only the spelling and pronunciation of Jewish names was russified (e.g. Isaac instead of Yitskhak; Boris instead of Borukh), while in other cases traditional Jewish names were replaced by similarly sounding Russian names (e.g. Eugenia instead of Ghita; Yury instead of Yuda). When state anti-Semitism intensified in the USSR at the end of the 1940s, most Jewish parents stopped giving their children traditional Jewish names to avoid discrimination.

24 Struggle against religion

The 1930s was a time of anti-religion struggle in the USSR. In those years it was not safe to go to synagogue or to church. Places of worship, statues of saints, etc. were removed; rabbis, Orthodox and Roman Catholic priests disappeared behind KGB walls.

25 Six-Day-War

(Hebrew: Milhemet Sheshet Hayamim), also known as the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Six Days War, or June War, was fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It began when Israel launched a preemptive war on its Arab neighbors; by its end Israel controlled the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights. The results of the war affect the geopolitics of the region to this day.

26 Keep in touch with relatives abroad

The authorities could arrest an individual corresponding with his/her relatives abroad and charge him/her with espionage, send them to concentration camp or even sentence them to death.

27 1956

It designates the Revolution, which started on 23rd October 1956 against Soviet rule and the communists in Hungary. It was started by student and worker demonstrations in Budapest and began with the destruction of Stalin's gigantic statue. Moderate communist leader Imre Nagy was appointed as prime minister and he promised reform and democratization. The Soviet Union withdrew its troops which had been stationed in Hungary since the end of World War II, but they returned after Nagy's declaration that Hungary would pull out of the Warsaw Pact to pursue a policy of neutrality. The Soviet army put an end to the uprising on 4th November, and mass repression and arrests began. About 200,000 Hungarians fled from the country. Nagy and a number of his supporters were executed. Until 1989 and the fall of the communist regime, the Revolution of 1956 was officially considered a counter-revolution.

28 Twentieth Party Congress

At the Twentieth Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956 Khrushchev publicly debunked the cult of Stalin and lifted the veil of secrecy from what had happened in the USSR during Stalin's leadership.

29 Voice of America

International broadcasting service funded by the U.S. government through the Broadcasting Board of Governors. Voice of America has been broadcasting since 1942, initially to Europe in various European languages from the US on short wave. During the cold war it grew increasingly popular in Soviet-controlled Eastern Europe as an information source. 

30 Hesed

Meaning care and mercy in Hebrew, Hesed stands for the charity organization founded by Amos Avgar in the early 20th century. Supported by Claims Conference and Joint Hesed helps for Jews in need to have a decent life despite hard economic conditions and encourages development of their self-identity. Hesed provides a number of services aimed at supporting the needs of all, and particularly elderly members of the society. The major social services include: work in the center facilities (information, advertisement of the center activities, foreign ties and free lease of medical equipment); services at homes (care and help at home, food products delivery, delivery of hot meals, minor repairs); work in the community (clubs, meals together, day-time polyclinic, medical and legal consultations); service for volunteers (training programs). The Hesed centers have inspired a real revolution in the Jewish life in the FSU countries. People have seen and sensed the rebirth of the Jewish traditions of humanism. Currently over eighty Hesed centers exist in the FSU countries. Their activities cover the Jewish population of over eight hundred settlements.
 

Nina Khlevner

St. Petersburg 
Russia 
Interviewer: Bella Shevchuk 
Date of interview: September 2002 

Nina Lvovna is an intelligent woman of 78. She is not tall and has kind eyes.

Five months ago she buried her husband and was left completely alone.

In spite of all the bitterness, connected with the loss of her husband, with whom she lived for 40 years,
she expressed her desire to tell us about the life of her relatives.

Nina Lvovna perfectly remembers many details of her ancestors’ life and is very proud of them.

  • Family background

I was born in 1924 in Rogachyov, a small town in Gomel region [today Belarus]. I don’t know if there was a maternity hospital in Rogachyov, but I was born at home, on Grandmother’s bed.

I remember Rogachyov as a very beautiful town on the bank of the Dnepr River. Many Jews lived there. I didn’t notice any anti-Semitism then. I think even more Jews lived there than Russians. The Dnepr was very beautiful, lilies bloomed on the shoals. There was a beach at the opposite bank of the Dnepr. It was possible to get there in a ferryboat. A big bridge could be seen in the distance. The bridge was of strategic significance during the war –I read about it in the newspapers.

My maternal ancestors came from this town. My grandfather, my great-grandfather and all their relatives lived there. Their last name was Goldin. My great-grandfather was a tailor. All men in their family were tailors. I cannot say exactly what the residents of the town in general were engaged in, I can only tell you about my relatives. They were craftsmen. Grandfather’s sister married a carter, but all other men in the family were mostly tailors. There must have been traders in the town too. There was a good marketplace and a lot of berries were sold there. Grandmother went to the marketplace; I have not been there.

Grandfather never told me anything about their childhood. I only know that he had two brothers who left for America, but I don’t know their names. Two other brothers left for Leningrad [today St. Petersburg]. The Germans executed Grandfather’s sister Kreina with her family in Rogachyov by shooting in 1941.

Grandfather’s name was Meilakh Goldin and Grandmother’s name was Seina-Chaya; I do not know her maiden name. I don’t know anything about her family, only that she had a sister. My grandmother perished in Lugansk [today Ukraine], where she was also executed by shooting by the Germans in 1941 or 1942. Grandmother was a stocking-maker.

When the Great Patriotic War 1 broke out, Grandfather was about 63 and Grandmother was 60, though I am not sure about it. They had six children: sons Afroim, Pavel and Semyon and daughters Serafima, Rosalia and Revekka. Afroim and Pavel were at the frontline and fought against the Germans. Afroim was awarded many orders. Pavel reached Vienna. Serafima was executed by shooting by the Germans in Rogachyov.

In the 1970s Afroim and Rosalia left for Israel, where they died later on. Semyon, Pavel and Revekka lived in Leningrad. They have also passed away by now.

Grandfather was a tailor and Grandmother was a stocking-maker. Grandmother was involved in this craft while the children were small. When they grew up, Grandfather began to make more money. He worked at first at the cooperative and later on as an independent handicraftsman. His health did not allow him to work at the cooperative any longer and the children also helped at home. Grandfather had never had an atelier of his own or hired employees. His customers were mostly Jews. Grandmother stopped working and kept the household. They spoke Yiddish. Grandfather could not even write in Russian. He had no beard, but he had a moustache. My grandparents dressed very well, as Grandfather was a very good tailor.

They had a house in the main district of the town, not far from downtown and the bank of the Dnepr. There was one big room in the house and from that room an entrance led to two small bedrooms without doors. Beside these rooms, there was an isolated room for guests, a kitchen with a Russian stove 2, a small corridor, and a very big covered verandah. The furniture was good. I remember a fine black leather sofa, a nice black couch, a wardrobe, Grandfather’s desk, where he worked and a sideboard. It was all in the dining room. In my grandparents’ bedroom there was a bed and a chest of drawers; the other bedroom had a small bed and a small table. There were no paintings, books or bookshelves in the house.

I know that they kept a cow and chickens. When I visited them before the Great Patriotic War, there was no cow anymore. As far as I remember, they kept the cow until 1936, but their children began to object. Keeping a cow required too much effort, so it was sold. Тhey always had hens. There was a small garden and a vegetable garden. They had no helpers in the household, but before the Great Patriotic War they were less engaged with it, as the children began to help.

Grandfather observed absolutely all Jewish traditions. Grandmother also did it, but a little bit under Grandfather’s pressure. They had a kosher kitchen. They observed Sabbath and Grandfather attended the synagogue on Fridays. When he returned, he put on his tallit and read prayers. We sat at the table and waited. We could start eating only after he had finished the prayer. Grandmother also attended the synagogue, but not regularly. A non-Jewish woman came on Friday night and turned on the light, an oil lamp under a lamp-shade.

They celebrated all Jewish holidays at home. They had, for instance, Pesach dishes, which were kept separately. Grandfather read the Haggadah on Pesach. I remember some holiday, I cannot say which one, when a small glass is poured and the door is opened; everybody waits for someone to walk in and drink. [Editor’s note: The interviewee is talking about Pesach, about the glass for Prophet Elijah]. All in all, Grandfather celebrated all religious holidays, as he was very religious. However, he did not teach us Hebrew and basics of Judaism, as it did not comply with the time and official ideology 3

On certain days a beggar man came to our house. They fed him. It was traditional to help poor families. Days when that man was given food were scheduled as agreed with the Jewish neighbors. One day he came to eat at one house, next day he went to a different house, then to another one.

My parents and distant relatives, who were numerous in Rogachyov, as well as our friends said about my grandparents that they were very kind people and everybody respected them very much. Even strangers spoke of them with respect. Their relations with their relatives and neighbors were also very good.

My grandparents never went anywhere for a vacation. They only visited their children. Between 1926 and 1929 they lived in Lugansk [today Ukraine]. It was the period of starvation 4 and very difficult to get food in Rogachyov. Food products were delivered to industrial towns at higher rates. They left for Lugansk in Ukraine together with several families and lived there for three years. Later they came back.

My grandparents both perished in Rogachyov in 1941. Their daughter Serafima came for a visit from Leningrad with her little daughter Zinaida right before the war. Her elder daughter Ninel stayed in Leningrad. When the war broke out, Serafima and her daughter were allowed to return to Leningrad. She did not dare leave her parents alone. Normal evacuation was organized from Rogachyov. We even knew the person, who put them on the train. Little Zinaida fell sick en route. I still keep a postcard with a message about her illness. They got off the train in order to find a doctor. Grandfather’s sister Kreina also got off the train together with her family. They couldn’t get back onto the train after that.

They hired a cart and tried to make their way farther away from the Germans. The Germans approached very quickly and they were all sent back to Rogachyov. I don’t know how long they stayed in their house. The Germans collected all Jews and executed them by shooting. The witnesses said that Grandfather got out of the pit. His wife, daughter and granddaughter were shot in front of his eyes. At night he got out, went to someone whom he trusted and told him everything. Grandfather understood that he could not go to Leningrad. He said that he had a son in Lugansk and he wanted to go there. No one saw him ever after. Maybe that man betrayed him. There is a different house now in the place where the house of my grandparents was. It is the same house, with the same facade, but no one has the right to claim the house, because it has been reconstructed already.

My paternal grandfather’s name was Meyer Khlevner. He also came from Rogachyov. Everybody called him Meyer-the-water-carrier, because he delivered water in a barrel. At first he was a rope maker, he weaved ropes. Fires often occurred in Rogachyov. The houses were wooden and the wood dried during summer. If one house started to burn, a lot of houses caught fire and burnt down. Grandfather Meyer once lost a house in the fire. And his rope business also burnt down. He was a very proud man. He had very rich cousins and they wanted him to ask them for help in order to restore his business. He said that he didn’t want to ask them for help. So they bought him a horse and a barrel, so that he could deliver water from the Dnepr. Water was delivered like that to houses at that time. Only in the 1930s the water supply system was constructed and water-pumps were placed in the yards.

People in Rogachyov said that Meyer was too proud. When he arrived and saw that there was no container prepared for water, he poured the water out and left. That is why everybody considered him an evil man, though my father told me that Grandfather was a very kind, but independent man. People wanted him to wait for the containers to be brought and the money to be paid. But he did not like to wait and plead. That is why he was humiliatingly called Meyer-the-water-carrier. He died before the Revolution 5, I don’t know exactly which year.

Grandmother Nikhama came from a rich family. Her parents were against her marriage with Meyer. They also considered him an evil man. Grandmother didn’t keep in touch with her parents, brothers or sisters. Nikhama and Meyer had two sons, my father Lev and Mordukh; and two daughters, Chesya and Basya. Nikhama was sick most of the time, I believe there was something the matter with her heart. She died in 1924 before my parents got married. I don’t know anything about her childhood, youth or her family.

My father, Lev Mironovich Khlevner, was born in Rogachyov in 1902. His parents were poor, that is why he worked at a brick factory since he was nine years old. Later he was enlisted into the army. After the active service he studied at various Party courses and worked at high managing positions.

Father’s relatives were not religious people. Their destiny was different. He had two sisters in Dnepropetrovsk. Chesya lived there with her husband; they were confectioners. In 1941 they decided to stay home and considered the talks about German atrocities stupid. They were executed by shooting by the Germans, but no one knows the details. The husband of Father’s second sister Basya was subject to repressions in the 1930s 6; it was in the newspapers. When he was released, a car hit him. Maybe it was not an accident. They had three children. Their elder daughter Rosa worked as a hospital nurse. Her daughter Anna was fifteen and her son Boris was seventeen when they volunteered to the frontline without their mother’s permission and disappeared. No one knows anything about them. Basya got evacuated and survived.

Father’s brother Mordukh lived in Rogachyov and worked in a store, selling salt and kerosene. He had five children and a sick wife. The family was evacuated in 1941, I don’t know where. His wife died there. One of his sons, Fadey, was a worker, he lives in Israel now. His other son Samuil joined the army and perished at the frontline during the Great Patriotic War. Son Semyon was also in the war and returned disabled. He lives in America now. The fourth son Mark worked as a construction designer. He died of a stroke. Uncle Mordukh’s daughter Nina died too; she had hypertension. 

My mother’s name was Rosalia Mikhailovna Khlevner, nee Goldina. She was born in Rogachyov in 1903. She attended a Jewish school and finished six grades. She knew Yiddish and wrote in Yiddish, but she had to speak Russian all her life. Before the Great Patriotic War she was a housewife, raising her children.

My parents lived in a small town and knew each other since their childhood. Mother was very beautiful and was a success among men, she attracted men’s attention. Even a rich nepman [entrepreneur during the NEP] 7 courted her. Father tried to attract my mother’s attention. And he did. They got married in 1924. There was a wedding ceremony; I have seen the album with wedding pictures. They had a wedding according to the Jewish tradition, with a chuppah. Later my parents added other pictures to the album. It was a very beautiful album with a memorable inscription for the wedding. I had seen it before World War II, but it disappeared after the war.

I was born in Rogachyov in 1924. Mother raised me at home; I didn’t go to the kindergarten. My childhood was not bad at all. Mother read books to me, taught me and took me for walks. I didn’t go to school in Rogachyov, because we left the town in 1926. I only went there to visit my grandparents.

Our family’s social and financial status was rather good. Father was a member of the Party and a Soviet organization man. He was appointed manager of economic enterprises and political instructor, although not a very important one. Father was often ‘thrown’ from one place of work to another. We lived in different towns in Ukraine: in Lugansk, Belovodsk, Slavyansk, Shepetovka and Kramatorsk. Father held important positions: Raypotrepbsoyuz 8 chairman in Belovodsk, head of the resort purchase department in Slavyansk, army political employee in Shepetovka, second secretary for the Party District Committee of the VKP (b) – All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks – in Kramatorsk. He was provided with separate apartments at every place he worked. We lived in good conditions.

My parents’ life was far from being religious. They lived in modern urban conditions. No Jewish traditions were celebrated in our family. We did not attend the synagogue. I think that there even was no synagogue in the places we lived. There was a Soviet school. Father gave me various ‘ideological’ lectures about life, about how I should behave. My favorite holidays were the Soviet New Year and the Soviet Army Day 9. We never celebrated Pesach or other religious holidays. Only once, in 1940 I was present at the Pesach celebration at my grandmother’s place in Rogachyov. I didn’t like the Pesach food, I had to eat matzah and matzah dumplings instead of bread, and I was not used to it.

I don’t remember anything about life in Lugansk, where in 1927 my sister Mira was born, but she died at a very young age, when she was one and a half years old. She had a whooping cough and brain fever. I remembered only my first trip on the train. I was four and a half years old. Father was assigned to political courses in Odessa [today Ukraine] for half a year. He took us with him.

We lived in Belovodsk at the beginning of the 1930s, where Father was sent to work for three years after he finished some regular Party courses. Father was appointed chairman of the district consumer cooperation, provided supplies to the inhabitants. There was a stud farm there. We often went to the horse races, went to the countryside. My parents took me everywhere with them. My brother Vladimir was born in Belovodsk in 1932.

At that time the Soviet power was introducing the policy of agricultural collectivization 10 and dispossession of the kulaks 11. It was a terrible time. The villagers starved, and people’s dead bodies lay about in the street in the towns. The authorities began to look for scapegoats. Father, being the only Jew among the managers, found himself under investigation. In 1932 he was arrested and thrown into prison. He was accused of bad supply of food to citizens and organization of starvation, though the superior managers, who ruined the peasantry, should have been held accountable for that. Mother sent me to the militia head. He allowed us to see Father in prison. There was a wooden table and two benches in the meeting-room. I ran to Father. The guard was silent and turned away to the window. Father asked me not to touch him, but I tried to kiss him. In half a year the investigation was over. Father was declared innocent and released. I was eight years old.

I went to school at the age of seven in Belovodsk. It was a standard Soviet school with all studies in Russian. I changed schools very often because we moved frequently. After Belovodsk I went to school in Slavyansk up to the seventh grade, later in Rogachyov for half a year, then again in Slavyansk until 1939 and finally in Shepetovka. My favorite subjects at school were Chemistry and Literature. I was very often the favorite pupil among the teachers.

Only once I met a teacher with whom I could not have good relations. It was our teacher of Geography and our class teacher. Maybe she couldn’t cope with the fact that I was a Jewess. She liked to make the following inquiry, ‘Hold up your hands those who are Russian. Those who are Ukrainian. Those who are Jewish.’ She was a hidden anti-Semite. There was no public anti-Semitism, but such a procedure involuntarily made one reflect. She very often made this experiment. She was interested in the national content. Everybody understood that neither Russians nor Ukrainians roused special emotions. A Jew does rouse such emotions. Everybody turns around to see who is a Jew. It led to national discord between children. I myself felt uneasy. I had a very bad attitude towards that teacher, and so did she to me. We hated each other.

I didn’t have private teachers. My friends were both Russians and Jews. We didn’t really feel the difference as we considered ourselves Soviet above all. I loved to read, especially historic and adventurous novels. Once I was in a summer pioneer camp 12 and twice in a sanatorium [resort] in Slavyansk. But I spent most of the time with my parents. I joined the Komsomol 13 during the Great Patriotic War absolutely sincerely, because of my convictions.

  • Before and during the war

In 1938 Hitler demanded the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia to be handed over to Germany 14. Father, being a staff officer, was again enlisted into the army as a political official [this was the name of commissars at that time]. Father was mobilized right after the terrible repression against the main Army Officers, when the Army was ‘decapitated’ and the Army was under restructuring, new staff was employed. The Red Army was getting prepared to help Czechoslovakia. I remember the forces being loaded onto troop trains. However, Poland refused to let the ‘Reds’ through and England and France yielded to Hitler.

In 1939 Mother moved to Rogachyov with me and my brother. The Soviet-Finnish war 15 broke out at that time. Father, as a military, was at the frontline. Mother decided to go to her parents’ place in order not to be alone during this restless time. When in spring 1940 the war with the Finns was over, Mother left with my brother to join Father. I was left with my grandparents to finish the school year. Studies could not be interrupted more than twice during one year. There were difficulties with food supplies in Rogachyov at that time. Bread was given based on rations 16, only black bread. If printed cotton was delivered to the store, women formed a line several days beforehand.

The approach of a great war was felt. Fortunately, there was a voentorg [a store for military people and their families]. Mother left me a voentorg card [a document, which provided the right to shop in that store]. As a fifteen-year-old girl I went shopping in this expensive voentorg store, which was located far from our house. Grandmother asked me to buy fish. I even brought bread. Bread was distributed there not according to ration cards, but according to the ration itself. I could take a whole loaf of bread in that voentorg, which I brought home and gave to Grandmother. Rather often it was a pretty big and heavy package of food products altogether, so carrying it, I would drop fish or something else.

My parents and my brother moved to Shepetovka [today Ukraine, 250 km west of Kiev] in 1940. I joined them after finishing the eighth grade of school in Rogachyov. We lived in the military settlement. Our garrison was located at the former frontier of the USSR, which, after the annexation of Western Ukraine in September 1939 17, was shifted to the west. There were 30 four-story brick buildings in the town, where soldiers and military families lived. There was a voentorg and a standard store, a movie-theater, the Red Army House for public and cultural performances.

Shepetovka itself was a small old town, where a lot of Jews lived. Even Russians and Ukrainians, who lived there, sometimes spoke Yiddish. There was a good school, where I studied up to the ninth grade with other children of the military. Father was provided with an official apartment with furniture. We had two rooms and good furniture. The house was heated with coal. But I don’t remember any water supply system. It was installed later. We had no animals, and no vegetable garden. We had a lot of books, all secular. Father read political literature and Mother liked novels. We subscribed to many newspapers and Mother attended the library. Father did too, but seldom, as he was a busy man.

In 1941 there was a parade in our town on 1st May. Me and my friend watched it from the balcony. It was very interesting to watch the people we knew, marching. We were 16 years old at that time, I already had a passport. On our way back home we discussed with childlike enthusiasm the strength and military bearing of our army. We met a drunk neighbor of ours; he liked young girls very much. He heard us talking about the large number of military forces at the parade and said, ‘why, you know that half of the forces stayed in the barracks today?’ The army expected Germany’s attack on 1st May. I remember that. Later Father told me, ‘Do not tell anyone about it. It is a secret.’

Right before the Great Patriotic War my father was demobilized from the army and appointed to work at an important position in the town of Kramatorsk [today Ukraine 550 km south-east of Kiev]. Huge heavy-machinery plants, producing military products, were located there. Soon heavy rains started. Our house was flooded, the whole first floor. We rented a room temporarily in a private house with a landlady.

Soon after that, on 22nd June 1941 the Great Patriotic War broke out. Father went to the military registration and enlistment office and wrote an application, asking to be accepted to the army as a volunteer. Father immediately left for the frontline. We received letters from him for about three months. The last letter from him stamped ‘Pereslavl’ [a small town near Kiev] was dated 28th September 1941. Later we got no messages from him. I continued to write letters, until my postcard was returned with a piece of paper attached, which said that there existed no such military unit. He was missing. We don’t know what happened with him. Later we got an official notification, stating that he was reported missing in October 1941. Apparently, he perished in encirclement [Germans surrounded and destroyed five Russian armies near Kiev in September 1941. The Red Army lost 1 million persons altogether then, killed and imprisoned].

In the fall of 1941 the Germans advanced to the east quickly. Me, my mother and brother left for evacuation. We had no luggage – no personal belongings, no towels, no food. There was no organized evacuation from Kramatorsk. We were evacuated according to the voenkomat [military commissariat] as a military’s family. We were sent to Sverdlovsk in the Urals [2,000 km east of St. Petersburg]. There were no more passenger trains, bombed troop trains returned form the frontline without any schedule. We got onto those semi-destroyed trains and left without any destination point.

Soon we came to Stalingrad. German planes hovered above us and bombed the trains in front of us, but they did not bomb our train. We were robbed in the train, a basket full of food products was stolen. So we had to starve. At the Tikhoretskaya station we slept right on the station floor. We arrived in Stalingrad lousy and starving. We were sent to the evacuation station for sanitary treatment. We washed, but that did not help, we still were lice-ridden. We were offered to be evacuated to Yenataisk, to get across the Volga River, to its left bank. Mother refused. She still believed that Father, reported missing, had not perished and would look for us in Sverdlovsk according to the voenkomat papers. If we had gone to Yenataisk, we would have stayed there, because it was possible to get there only on board a ship.

In 1941 we arrived in Sverdlovsk [now Yekaterinburg, a big center of military industry in the Urals]. We were sent to the village of Zaikovo from there. We lived in a small wooden house without any facilities. Neither me, nor my brother Vladimir went to school during the first year. My brother was small and I had to work at the kolkhoz 18. We dug the soil, planted potatoes and did some auxiliary works. In 1941 I joined the Komsomol. I went to the village school only in the third year and finished the ninth and tenth grades.

In 1944 we returned to Kramatorsk. The town was heavily destroyed, we had nothing left, the Germans took everything, even the children’s bicycle. There was a table and empty cases left in the room. We sat on these cases. Big geographical maps remained, which were made of cloth. We washed them and used them as bed sheets. Such was our return home. Mother had already reconciled herself to the thought that Father had perished and would never come back. We had to start life all over again.

  • Later life

Anti-Semitism became very strong after the war 19. Especially in everyday life, it was horrible. Besides, we came to Kramatorsk only before the war and we were not considered ‘belonging to that place.’ When we saw that our neighbors had some of our things and asked them to give them back to us, a militia man immediately appeared before us to warn us. We received some anti-Semitic leaflets, faced dirty anti-Semitic attacks. We barely managed to escape from that place. Mother found a job as a barmaid at the movie-theater and was provided with an official apartment by the trade organization. Some nice people gave us an iron bed and a small table. We lived like that. The voenkomat provided us with a vegetable garden of 15 by 1000 meters unfortunately we could do nothing with that land, we had no strength. My brother went to school.

Out of many educational institutions only a machine construction technical school opened in Kramatorsk. I entered that school and was assigned to work 20 at the Novokramatorsky machine-construction plant and worked there until 1956 in the position of a technologist. My mother and brother left for Leningrad in 1949, where all her relatives lived. I could not join her before I worked for the term, fixed for me as a young specialist, assigned to a certain place of work. It was not possible to leave a place of work on one’s own desire. In 1956 I wrote an application to the Machine-Construction Ministry and I was allowed to leave. After that I left for Leningrad.

I had to find a job in Leningrad. Since I worked at the Novokramatorsky machine-construction plant, I didn’t need any additional advertising. Everybody knew that enterprise. But when any staff department saw my passport and read that I was a Jewess 21, everything became too complicated. I experienced several unpleasant episodes trying to find a job. At one of the enterprises the staff department head agreed to accept me, but, having seen my passport, told me, ‘You will not be taken on.’ At the ‘Svetlana’ plant the staff department told me directly that the General Manager would not take me on because of my nationality. The staff department at the third enterprise, where I came according to their job ad, accepted me, but the General Manager rejected me.

I found a job with difficulty at the SKB – Special Construction Design Bureau, which designed weighing measurement devices, but it was shut down in 1960. Between 1961 and 1964 I worked at the SKB which designed heating devices for the ‘Lenteplopribor’ plant. When I married my direct supervisor, I decided to quit, in order to prevent any rumors. I began to work at ‘Krasnogvardeyets’ plant, which produced medical devices. I worked there until I retired.

I didn’t really face any anti-Semitism at work. There were no conflicts based on national grounds in our team. I am not a conflict person and I never sought any promotion. I cannot say that I was refused to be promoted because of my Jewish identity. I am not a person who wanted to build a career. I never intended to become a member of the Communist Party. Once I was elected member of the trade-union bureau and that was the peak of my social activity.

In 1963 I got married. My husband was a Latvian. My husband’s nationality was not important to me; it was the personality that mattered. We met at work, we worked together, he was my supervisor. His name was Konstantin Andreyevich Gek. He was born in 1908 in Leningrad. It was called Petersburg at that time. About his parents I knew that they were very good people. I never saw his father, he perished during the siege of Leningrad 22 in December 1942. But his mother was a very nice person.

We didn’t celebrate any Jewish or Latvian holidays, only family holidays and Soviet ones. We celebrated our birthdays, the New Year, but not the Jewish one, the 8th of March – International Women’s Day – and the 1st of May – International Solidarity of Workers, which became national holidays in the USSR.

In 1928 my husband finished one course at the Academy of Arts and after that got transferred to the Military-Mechanical Institute.

In 1932 he graduated from that Institute and was assigned to work at the torpedo plant launching at Kaspiysk plant 23. He was subject to repression there in 1937. I read his investigation file, but I still didn’t understand, why he was put in jail.

In 1939 his mother solicited for him and was received by Popkov, the Chairman of the Leningrad Municipal Executive Committee, Popkov. After that the case was reviewed. It was concluded that no item was confirmed and that he had not been working for the Japanese intelligence. However, someone underlined his nationality ‘Latvian’ in the file, wrote ‘three years’ and circled it in red pencil. He was sentenced to five years.

In 1942 he was supposed to be released. But during the war Stalin signed a decree, which prohibited the release of any convicts until 1946. So he was held in Kargopol camps [Archangelsk region in the north of the European part of Russia, 600 km north-east of St. Petersburg] until 1946 and then stayed in exile until 1953. When N. S. Khrushchev 24 came to power, his conviction was lifted in 1953 and in 1956 he was rehabilitated 25. He spent sixteen years in Gulag 26 all in all.

He was placed with criminals, whom the camp heads respected more than political prisoners. Fortunately, my husband was a sportsman in his youth: he did boxing, track and field athletics and could defend himself. He made them respect him. He worked at the timber throw and rafting. Convicts were accompanied by armed guards with dogs to their work places.

My husband fell sick with scurvy because of hunger. His teeth fell out and his legs got swollen. One criminal felt sorry for him and brought some paper to draw cards for additional food products. However, food didn’t help anymore. The convicts did a ‘mostyrka’ for him, an artificial blood poisoning: they pricked his finger with a rusty nail and poured some kerosene into the wound. His hand got inflamed and he was placed into the sick-quarters, where convicts/doctors saved his hand.

He got acquainted with an ex-tanker at the hospital, who told him about tanks. My husband made up a device, improving the equipment of the tank and submitted the invention to the head of the camp. After release from the hospital he was provided with a separate room, two assistants/convicts and the management started to use him as an engineer. Besides, he drew posters and demonstration drawings of weapons, used for guards’ training.

In 1953 my husband returned to Leningrad, and worked as a technologist at various enterprises. The General Manager of the hoisting-transportation plant, where he worked before 1956, was among the plant employees in Kaspiysk, who put him into prison. My husband had to quit and leave for Latvia, where he grew and sold vegetables. In 1957 he returned to Leningrad. When we met, he was Deputy General Manager of the design bureau of the ‘Lenteplopribor’ plant. He retired from this position in 1980.

When we got married in 1963, we were very happy and had a wonderful time together. We didn’t have children, because we were both not young people anymore. During the first two years we spent our vacations in the south, on the Black Sea coast. Later we went fishing and mushroom-picking every year. We devoted all our vacations and holidays to those activities. We took a tent and spent the night in the woods or on the bank of a river. We bought ourselves a one-room apartment in the city and made a neat home out of it for us.

In 1980 my husband retired and began to paint landscapes and take them to the art salon to be sold. He painted until he was 90 years old, until his death.

My mother and brother Vladimir emigrated to Israel in 1976. Mother died there in 1980. My brother moved to the USA after Mother had died and we lost contact since 1982. I don’t know, why I didn’t emigrate together with them, I regret it very much. Certainly my husband would have gone with me. I could not trust the Soviet system, because I knew the truth about it from my husband, who spent sixteen years in Gulag. I remember my friends, who left for Israel. I wanted to leave too, but I was scared for some reason. I don’t know why, but I was afraid that it would be bad there.

The Arab-Israeli wars 27 28 and the severance of diplomatic relations between Israel and the USSR 29 did not touch me personally. Not even after my relatives left for Israel. Certainly I was very worried about the Jewish state and I wanted it to exist.

I have never been to Israel. I corresponded with my mother, when she was already living there. I wrote letters to her every five days. I wrote on the 5th, 10th, 15th, 20th, 25th and 30th day of each month. She knew the dates, when to expect my letters. When I wrote to my mother, I thought every word over 30 and gave the letter to my husband to check. We knew that the letters were examined by the KGB. Mother replied in a more free style to me, told me about her life and invited me to come.

I would like to go there now, but I am too weak to do it, and most importantly, I cannot afford it. When the democratization started in this country in 1989 we believed that everything would change for the better and we believed in truth, but it appeared that it does not exist. My life has changed a lot. We lived like normal people and then we turned into poor ones. How does it help, that I have the legal right to visit my mother’s grave, if I have no money to make the trip?

I get parcels, medications and gifts on holidays from Hesed 31. I am very grateful for this support. I felt my belonging to the Jewish nation only when I grew rather old. It means a lot to me, maybe mostly after my dear husband died in 2002 and I was left all alone. Only some friends of mine are alive, some of them are Jews, some non-Jewish. All the rest died.

  • Glossary:

1 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o'clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war.
By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

2 Russian stove

Big stone stove stoked with wood. They were usually built in a corner of the kitchen and served to heat the house and cook food. It had a bench that made a comfortable bed for children and adults in wintertime.

3 Struggle against religion

The 1930s was a time of anti-religion struggle in the USSR. In those years it was not safe to go to synagogue or to church. Places of worship, statues of saints, etc. were removed; rabbis, Orthodox and Roman Catholic priests disappeared behind KGB walls.
4 Famine in Ukraine: In 1920 a deliberate famine was introduced in the Ukraine causing the death of millions of people. It was arranged in order to suppress those protesting peasants who did not want to join the collective farms. There was another dreadful deliberate famine in 1930-1934 in the Ukraine. The authorities took away the last food products from the peasants. People were dying in the streets, whole villages became deserted. The authorities arranged this specifically to suppress the rebellious peasants who did not want to accept Soviet power and join collective farms.

5 Russian Revolution of 1917

Revolution in which the tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Empire and, under Lenin, was replaced by the Bolshevik rule. The two phases of the Revolution were: February Revolution, which came about due to food and fuel shortages during World War I, and during which the tsar abdicated and a provisional government took over. The second phase took place in the form of a coup led by Lenin in October/November (October Revolution) and saw the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

6 Great Terror (1934-1938)

During the Great Terror, or Great Purges, which included the notorious show trials of Stalin's former Bolshevik opponents in 1936-1938 and reached its peak in 1937 and 1938, millions of innocent Soviet citizens were sent off to labor camps or killed in prison. The major targets of the Great Terror were communists. Over half of the people who were arrested were members of the party at the time of their arrest. The armed forces, the Communist Party, and the government in general were purged of all allegedly dissident persons; the victims were generally sentenced to death or to long terms of hard labor. Much of the purge was carried out in secret, and only a few cases were tried in public 'show trials'. By the time the terror subsided in 1939, Stalin had managed to bring both the Party and the public to a state of complete submission to his rule. Soviet society was so atomized and the people so fearful of reprisals that mass arrests were no longer necessary. Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union until his death in March 1953.

7 NEP

The so-called New Economic Policy of the Soviet authorities was launched by Lenin in 1921. It meant that private business was allowed on a small scale in order to save the country ruined by the Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War. They allowed priority development of private capital and entrepreneurship. The NEP was gradually abandoned in the 1920s with the introduction of the planned economy.

8 Raypotrepbsoyuz

District Consumer Committee, the organization, which provided supplies to the inhabitants.

9 Soviet Army Day

The Russian imperial army and navy disintegrated after the outbreak of the Revolution of 1917, so the Council of the People's Commissars created the Workers' and Peasants' Red Army on a voluntary basis. The first units distinguished themselves against the Germans on February 23, 1918. This day became the 'Day of the Soviet Army' and is nowadays celebrated as 'Army Day'.

10 Collectivization in the USSR

In the late 1920s - early 1930s private farms were liquidated and collective farms established by force on a mass scale in the USSR. Many peasants were arrested during this process. As a result of the collectivization, the number of farmers and the amount of agricultural production was greatly reduced and famine struck in the Ukraine, the Northern Caucasus, the Volga and other regions in 1932-33.

11 Kulaks

In the Soviet Union the majority of wealthy peasants that refused to join collective farms and give their grain and property to Soviet power were called kulaks, declared enemies of the people and exterminated in the 1930s.

12 All-Union pioneer organization

a communist organization for teenagers between 10 and 15 years old (cf: boy-/ girlscouts in the US). The organization aimed at educating the young generation in accordance with the communist ideals, preparing pioneers to become members of the Komsomol and later the Communist Party. In the Soviet Union, all teenagers were pioneers.

13 Komsomol

Communist youth political organization created in 1918. The task of the Komsomol was to spread of the ideas of communism and involve the worker and peasant youth in building the Soviet Union. The Komsomol also aimed at giving a communist upbringing by involving the worker youth in the political struggle, supplemented by theoretical education. The Komsomol was more popular than the Communist Party because with its aim of education people could accept uninitiated young proletarians, whereas party members had to have at least a minimal political qualification.

14 Sudetenland

Highly industrialized north-west frontier region that was transferred from the Austro-Hungarian Empire to the new state of Czechoslovakia in 1919. Together with the land a German-speaking minority of 3 million people was annexed, which became a constant source of tension both between the states of Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia, and within Czechoslovakia. In 1935 a Nazi-type party, the Sudeten German Party financed by the German government, was set up. Following the Munich Agreement in 1938 German troops occupied the Sudetenland. In 1945 Czechoslovakia regained the territory and pogroms started against the German and Hungarian minority. The Potsdam Agreement authorized Czechoslovakia to expel the entire German and Hungarian minority from the country.

15 Soviet-Finnish War (1939-40)

The Soviet Union attacked Finland on 30 November 1939 to seize the Karelian Isthmus. The Red Army was halted at the so-called Mannengeim line. The League of Nations expelled the USSR from its ranks. In February-March 1940 the Red Army broke through the Mannengeim line and reached Vyborg. In March 1940 a peace treaty was signed in Moscow, by which the Karelian Isthmus, and some other areas, became part of the Soviet Union.

16 Card system

The food card system regulating the distribution of food and industrial products was introduced in the USSR in 1929 due to extreme deficit of consumer goods and food. The system was cancelled in 1931. In 1941, food cards were reintroduced to keep records, distribute and regulate food supplies to the population. The card system covered main food products such as bread, meat, oil, sugar, salt, cereals, etc. The rations varied depending on which social group one belonged to, and what kind of work one did. Workers in the heavy industry and defense enterprises received a daily ration of 800 g (miners - 1 kg) of bread per person; workers in other industries 600 g. Non-manual workers received 400 or 500 g based on the significance of their enterprise, and children 400 g. However, the card system only covered industrial workers and residents of towns while villagers never had any provisions of this kind. The card system was cancelled in 1947.

17 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

Non-aggression pact between Germany and the Soviet Union, which became known under the name of Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Engaged in a border war with Japan in the Far East and fearing the German advance in the west, the Soviet government began secret negotiations for a non-aggression pact with Germany in 1939. In August 1939 it suddenly announced the conclusion of a Soviet-German agreement of friendship and non-aggression. The Pact contained a secret clause providing for the partition of Poland and for Soviet and German spheres of influence in Eastern Europe.

18 Kolkhoz

In the Soviet Union the policy of gradual and voluntary collectivization of agriculture was adopted in 1927 to encourage food production while freeing labor and capital for industrial development. In 1929, with only 4% of farms in kolkhozes, Stalin ordered the confiscation of peasants' land, tools, and animals; the kolkhoz replaced the family farm.

19 Campaign against ‘cosmopolitans’

The campaign against 'cosmopolitans', i.e. Jews, was initiated in articles in the central organs of the Communist Party in 1949. The campaign was directed primarily at the Jewish intelligentsia and it was the first public attack on Soviet Jews as Jews. 'Cosmopolitans' writers were accused of hating the Russian people, of supporting Zionism, etc. Many Yiddish writers as well as the leaders of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee were arrested in November 1948 on charges that they maintained ties with Zionism and with American 'imperialism'. They were executed secretly in 1952. The anti-Semitic Doctors' Plot was launched in January 1953. A wave of anti-Semitism spread through the USSR. Jews were removed from their positions, and rumors of an imminent mass deportation of Jews to the eastern part of the USSR began to spread. Stalin's death in March 1953 put an end to the campaign against 'cosmopolitans.'

20 Mandatory job assignment in the USSR

Graduates of higher educational institutions had to complete a mandatory 2-year job assignment issued by the institution from which they graduated. After finishing this assignment young people were allowed to get employment at their discretion in any town or organization.

21 Item 5

This was the nationality factor, which was included on all job application forms, Jews, who were considered a separate nationality in the Soviet Union, were not favored in this respect from the end of World War II until the late 1980s.

22 Blockade of Leningrad

On September 8, 1941 the Germans fully encircled Leningrad and its siege began. It lasted until January 27, 1944. The blockade meant incredible hardships and privations for the population of the town. Hundreds of thousands died from hunger, cold and diseases during the almost 900 days of the blockade.

23 Kaspiysk Bombing

2002 Kaspiysk bombing was a May 9, 2002, attack which ripped through the military parade to commemorate the 57th anniversary of Soviet victory in World War II on Lenin Street in the city of Kaspiysk, Dagestan. Forty four people, including at least 19 soldiers and 12 children, were killed and 133 wounded in the explosion. (Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaspiysk_bombing)

24 Khrushchev, Nikita (1894-1971)

Soviet communist leader. After Stalin's death in 1953, he became first secretary of the Central Committee, in effect the head of the Communist Party of the USSR. In 1956, during the 20th Party Congress, Khrushchev took an unprecedented step and denounced Stalin and his methods. He was deposed as premier and party head in October 1964. In 1966 he was dropped from the Party's Central Committee.

25 Rehabilitation in the Soviet Union

Many people who had been arrested, disappeared or killed during the Stalinist era were rehabilitated after the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in 1956, where Khrushchev publicly debunked the cult of Stalin and lifted the veil of secrecy from what had happened in the USSR during Stalin's leadership. It was only after the official rehabilitation that people learnt for the first time what had happened to their relatives as information on arrested people had not been disclosed before.

26 Gulag

The Soviet system of forced labor camps in the remote regions of Siberia and the Far North, which was first established in 1919. However, it was not until the early 1930s that there was a significant number of inmates in the camps. By 1934 the Gulag, or the Main Directorate for Corrective Labor Camps, then under the Cheka's successor organization the NKVD, had several million inmates. The prisoners included murderers, thieves, and other common criminals, along with political and religious dissenters. The Gulag camps made significant contributions to the Soviet economy during the rule of Stalin. Conditions in the camps were extremely harsh. After Stalin died in 1953, the population of the camps was reduced significantly, and conditions for the inmates improved somewhat.

27 Six-Day-War

(Hebrew: Milhemet Sheshet Hayamim), also known as the 1967 Arab-Israeli War, Six Days War, or June War, was fought between Israel and its Arab neighbors Egypt, Jordan, and Syria. It began when Israel launched a preemptive war on its Arab neighbors; by its end Israel controlled the Gaza Strip, the Sinai Peninsula, the West Bank, and the Golan Heights. The results of the war affect the geopolitics of the region to this day. 

28 Yom Kippur War (1973 Arab-Israeli War)

(Hebrew: Milchemet Yom HaKipurim), also known as the October War, the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, and the Ramadan War, was fought from 6th October (the day of Yom Kippur) to 24th October 1973, between Israel and a coalition of Egypt and Syria. The war began when Egypt and Syria launched a surprise joint attack in the Sinai and Golan Heights, respectively, both of which had been captured by Israel during the Six-Day-War six years earlier. The war had far-reaching implications for many nations. The Arab world, which had been humiliated by the lopsided defeat of the Egyptian-Syrian-Jordanian alliance during the Six-Day-War, felt psychologically vindicated by its string of victories early in the conflict. This vindication, in many ways, cleared the way for the peace process which followed the war. The Camp David Accords, which came soon after, led to normalized relations between Egypt and Israel - the first time any Arab country had recognized the Israeli state. Egypt, which had already been drifting away from the Soviet Union, then left the Soviet sphere of influence almost entirely. 

29 Severing the diplomatic ties between the Eastern Block and Israel

After the 1967 Six-Day-War, the Soviet Union cut all diplomatic ties with Israel, under the pretext of Israel being the aggressor and the neighboring Arab states the victims of Israeli imperialism. The Soviet-occupied Eastern European countries (Eastern Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Bulgaria) conformed to the verdict of the Kremlin and followed the Soviet example. Diplomatic relations between Israel and the ex-Communist countries resumed after the fall of communism. 

30 Keep in touch with relatives abroad

The authorities could arrest an individual corresponding with his/her relatives abroad and charge him/her with espionage, send them to concentration camp or even sentence them to death. 

31 Hesed

Meaning care and mercy in Hebrew, Hesed stands for the charity organization founded by Amos Avgar in the early 20th century. Supported by Claims Conference and Joint Hesed helps for Jews in need to have a decent life despite hard economic conditions and encourages development of their self-identity. Hesed provides a number of services aimed at supporting the needs of all, and particularly elderly members of the society. The major social services include: work in the center facilities (information, advertisement of the center activities, foreign ties and free lease of medical equipment); services at homes (care and help at home, food products delivery, delivery of hot meals, minor repairs); work in the community (clubs, meals together, day-time polyclinic, medical and legal consultations); service for volunteers (training programs). The Hesed centers have inspired a real revolution in the Jewish life in the FSU countries. People have seen and sensed the rebirth of the Jewish traditions of humanism. Currently over eighty Hesed centers exist in the FSU countries. Their activities cover the Jewish population of over eight hundred settlements.

Aunt Rosie's Kitchen

A 17-minute documentary made for ABC News Nightline. In 1999 journalist Edward Serotta visited the Jewish soup kitchen in Arad, Romania and produced this story of friendship, camaraderie and hope. 

Abram Bashmet

Abram Bashmet
Lvov
Ukraine
Interviewer: Zhanna Litinskaya
Date of interview: November 2002

Abram Bashmet is a young-looking man, a smart and pleasant conversationalist. He is a very busy man. He spends almost all of his time on the study and propaganda of creative activities of his son Yuri Bashmet 1, a genius musician, a great viola player of the present time. Abram Bashmet lives in the center of Lvov, in a quiet street, in a prewar house. These houses are called Polish in Lvov; before 1939 this part of Ukraine belonged to Poland 2, and the Poles constructed buildings here. His apartment is spacious and clean, there is nice modern furniture and house appliances – his son’s presents. One can tell that there used to live a big and close family here. There are many photographs of his family, parents, children, grandchildren, posters, calendars and playbills with his son’s pictures on the walls. The master of the house can talk about his son non-stop. He didn’t quite like our request to talk about the past of his family at first, but later he warmed to this topic realizing the importance of the subject discussion.

My family

Childhood

During the war

Marriage and children

Recent years

Glossary

My family

According to the legend that has passed from one generation to another in our family, at the very beginning of the 19th century – presumably in 1805 –our ancestor escaped from Odessa 3 to Istanbul, Turkey, to avoid service in the tsarist army. His name was lost, but his nickname of ‘Valet’ [‘knave’] has been preserved in the memory of his successors speaking for his daring and reckless character. Sometime later he returned to Odessa bringing with him a young wife: either a Turkish girl, who adopted Judaism, or a Jewish girl from Istanbul. All Bashmet men have taken after this great-grandmother: they’ve been swarthy, with aquiline noses and dark eyes.

Valet also brought with him the new surname of Bashmet. ‘Bash’ – means ‘head’ in Turkish, and ‘met’ is a typical ending for Turkish surnames. He started the numerous Bashmet clan. It’s a rare surname, and if we bumped into somebody with a similar surname this somebody happened to be one of our relatives of some kind. He must have also founded the business that his successors continued: they kept the ‘Colonial Goods’ shop at the biggest market in Odessa selling goods supplied from Africa and Asia: tea, coffee, spices, etc.

Of all his children – and there were five brothers – we only know my great-grandfather Mordhe [Mordekhai] Bashmet [1835-1915]. He continued the trade business of his father. He was not a rich man and he was religious. He married a Jewish woman from Odessa: Malka-Perl [1837-1913], a daughter of the trader Aizik – I don’t remember his surname. They had two older sons, Yankel and Moisha, who moved to the USA at the end of the 19th or beginning of the 20th century and were lost there. The daughters Surah and Tsyvie lived their life in Odessa; their husbands were vendors at the Privoz market, and they also dealt in trade. Odessa was a trading town – everybody dealt in trade and crafts.

Mordekhai’s younger son, my grandfather Avrum, was born in Odessa in 1872. He studied in cheder, like his brothers, and was helping his father in the shop. He kept the Jewish spirit in his house, the order that his ancestors had established, though one couldn’t call Jews in Odessa very religious. They went to the synagogue because this was a custom. On major Jewish holidays all neighbors, relatives and acquaintances dressed up, went to the synagogue and had traditional festive dinners at home: matzah dishes on Pesach, gefilte fish, chicken stew and broth. However, those meals did not have any special religious meaning: they were just paying tribute to their ancestors and general customs. On Saturday or Jewish holidays the Jewish stores were closed. 

At 17 or 18 my grandfather was recruited to the army. He served as a private in an infantry regiment located in the vicinity of Grodno [today Belarus]. At that time soldiers who had Judaic faith were given leave on religious Jewish holidays. They joined Jewish families for celebrations. So one seder my grandfather came to the family of a wholesale fish trader named Michel Rohkes in the town of Indura [26 km south of Grodno, Belarus]. Everything was different for him on this day: the festive celebration according to all rules, the children posing four traditional questions, the family reclining on cushions, the thick red wine the remainder of which they poured into a big jug calling this the ‘Egyptian tortures.’ He was a soldier, and the food seemed extraordinarily delicious to him.

There were many people at the table, but Avrum laid his eye on the daughter of the master of the house, Feiga, born in 1876. I guess Avrum happened to visit the Rohkes house more often than holidays occurred. He got to know Feiga more closely in no time, and they got married before Avrum was to demobilize. Of course, this was a real Jewish wedding in a special building, there was a chuppah and a special chair for the bride. [Editor’s note: in smaller towns in Belarus where the majority of population was Jewish they had special community halls for family celebrations.]

My grandfather returned to Odessa with his young wife in 1894 or 1895. This is all I know about the part of our family from Grodno. My grandmother had brothers, but I don’t know how many there were of them or their names. Avrum went to work upholstering furniture, and Feiga, as they say nowadays, joined in the family business. She owned a stand selling oriental ‘Colonial sweets’ such as rakhat-lukum, khalva, sugar almonds, candied fruits, etc. She had little education that she got at home: she could read and write in Russian and Yiddish so-so, but she could calculate nicely and was successful in her trade. 

My grandmother was a beautiful woman and a good housewife. She knew customs and rules, spoke Yiddish and worked hard, but she didn’t have a happy life. She became a widow at the age of 44. My grandfather died of typhus at the age of 48 in August 1920 and was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Odessa according to traditions. My grandmother loved her sons and grandchildren dearly. Her children were the most beautiful, talented and intelligent in the world. My grandmother died in 1952 in Lvov where the family came to live after the Great Patriotic War 4 when they returned from evacuation in Alma-Ata. She was 76. She was buried in the Jewish sector of the town cemetery in Lvov according to the Jewish customs.

Grandmother Feiga had six sons. One son died in infancy, and five survived and grew up. The sons attended cheder in their childhood. They studied the basics of Judaism, could read prayers, went to the synagogue on holidays, knew Yiddish and spoke it at home, but like most Odessites, they spoke a mixed language: a terrible mixture of Russian, Ukrainian and Yiddish. When the situation improved and the family could afford to send them to a grammar school, it didn’t make them educated people. What was common for all brothers was that they tried to not work at state enterprises, but rather preferred to work individually. [Editor’s note: during the NEP 5 and afterward some people in the USSR were involved in handicraft production: shoemakers, tailors, embroidery craftswomen, toy and jewelry manufacturers. They obtained licenses and paid taxes for permission to sell their products at markets.]

My father’s older brother Iosif – he was called Juzia at home – was born in 1898. He didn’t leave a good memory of himself. Though it is not allowed to speak badly of the deceased, he was remembered to be a tough, greedy man dictating his rules to his brothers and his family. He was a despot. He was a skilled leather handler at an enterprise, and later as a private businessman. He was wealthy since leather handling was a good craft, but he never supported his relatives, even at the hardest time. 

His first wife, a Jew called Sonia Basman, died in Odessa before the Great Patriotic War. They had two children: daughter Maria, born in 1919 and son Abram, born in 1923. Maria’s husband Victor Lezhanskiy was the director of a big enterprise in Lvov after the war. It was to his credit that the family moved to Lvov after the war.

Iosif remarried in Lvov. His second wife Yelena was 25-28 years younger than him. She was a beautiful Russian woman. He supported her, but when he grew old and fell severely ill, she didn’t care about him. She had other men. One of them beat her mercilessly of jealousy and Yelena died from the injuries. Iosif had a son in this marriage. His name is Valentin and he lives in Lvov now. Iosif’s son Abram, his wife Sophia and their children – daughter Larisa and son Mikhail – moved to the USA in the middle of the 1970s where Abram died in 1986. Maria died in Lvov in 1991 and her husband Victor Lezhanskiy also passed away.

My father’s second brother Grigoriy, born in 1901, was known in the family for having four wives. I even remember their names: Mania, Vera, Riva and Musia. They were all Jews and Grigoriy loved each of them. He was an amorous man. He was a handsome man. He resembled my grandmother. From his second marriage with Vera he had a boy. His name was Israel, but I have absolutely no information about his life. His last wife Musia had a daughter. Her name was Concordia. They lived in Saratov [today Russia] before the war. Like the other brothers, Grigoriy dealt in craftsmanship, something to do with shoemaking. During the war Grigoriy was at the front where he perished on 6th May 1945 in Germany. My father was thinking of visiting his grave for many years. He even had an invitation to Germany, but he never went there.

My father’s third brother Solomon – Jewish name Shulim – was born in 1903. He was a specialist in shoe painting; before the war he worked at the shoe factory in Odessa. During the war he was in Saratov in evacuation and he stayed there after the war. He painted shoes as a private craftsman. While working at the factory Solomon was exposed to hazardous acetone and had lung problems. He was married twice: his wives’ names were Tsylia and Milia. I met his second wife, with whom he moved to his brothers in Lvov, when he was a pensioner. Solomon died in 1987. He had no children.

The youngest brother Aizik – he was called Izia at home – was born in 1910. He was the most enterprising of all the brothers. We were the closest with him and his family, and he and I were friends. Every time he had different ideas. At first he thought of becoming a photographer and he arranged a ‘Photo salon’ that was a small room with a garden bench in it and decorations of all kinds to take photos with the mountains, sea or a waterfall in the background. He also painted over the pictures with different colors.

His wife was Shprintsia Ostritskaya, a Jew from Odessa. He had four sons and a daughter. The older son Yakov lived near Odessa. He had diabetes and was very ill. Now his wife Flora and daughters Lilia and Maria live in Odessa. His second son Mikhail was killed in Lvov. He was a troublesome person. He had a strange life, nobody knows any details, but he probably didn’t live an honest life. Once he disappeared and later it turned out that he was murdered. This is all the information available. The third son Grigoriy is very smart. He moved to Los Angeles, America, in the 1970s. Their daughter Lilia lives in Israel and her son Felix also lives there.

The youngest son Vladimir moved to Germany in the middle of the 1990s. He has two children: son Sergey living in Israel is married, and daughter Yelena lives in Germany. Vladimir finished a college, worked as a railroad engineer for a long time, then life became unbearable – he got a very low salary at the railroad, and he went to work in private business. He had a tourist and a commercial company, but then he closed them and moved to Germany with his wife. His wife Irina is Russian. She is a teacher. They live near Baden-Baden in Germany. 

My father Boris – Jewish name Ber – Bashmet was the fourth son of Avrum and Feiga. He was born in 1905. My father studied in cheder and then began to study in a grammar school, which he never finished. My father had little education and wrote with mistakes in Russian. His older brother tried to involve him in his business, but my father separated from him.

My father was very handy and had smart ideas. He knew that after the horrors of the Civil War 6 people would like to decorate their homes, he modified an embroidery needle, with which people could embroider rugs, pillow cases and tablecloths with color threads. The pattern was imprinted on cloth, and the needle was used to make little tight knots that made the embroidery look very fancy. These needles were in great demand. He was an entrepreneur, as they call it now, he had a patent and paid taxes. A financial inspector [state officer responsible for identification of illegal businesses] visited him, and he filled in taxation forms.

The family was not poor. My father was a breadwinner his whole life. He liked working for himself. He didn’t want to be subject to tough discipline at work. When the weather was bad, he stayed at home making his needles and later he went to the market to sell them. He always paid taxes on time. He didn’t want to have any problems with the authorities. He was very independent. He started working at the age of 15, after he lost his father, in the middle of the Civil War. Life was miserable in Odessa in those years.

Boris Bashmet was a very kind man. When he was 20, he met Tsylia Birstein. She was the same age as he. He always shared his food with her. She never had sufficient food and needed support. They met in a company of young people. They got married in 1925. They just had a civil ceremony registering their marriage. After the revolution of 1917 7, religious weddings were not popular.

I know very little about my ancestors on my mother’s side. My grandfather’s name was Chaim Birstein. I don’t know his date of birth, though I guess it may have been in the 1860s, or occupation. They lived in Odessa and had a better education than the Bashmet family. Their children finished a grammar school. There is one photo of my grandmother Etl Berstein. Her nickname was ‘De sheine’ – ‘the most beautiful’ in Yiddish. My mother’s sister Lisa moved to Buenos Aires in Argentina in 1910. Her older brother Haime moved to London in England in 1912, and we lost track of them for good. I think they must have been born in the 1880s. My mother was a little girl then and remembered them dimly.

In 1919 my mother’s parents died of typhus. My mother went to live with her older sister Yevgenia, born in 1887. Her husband Vladimir Lipshitz came from a poor family in Odessa. He was an enthusiastic revolutionary in the underground. In 1916 he moved abroad escaping from the tsarist police. He returned after the revolution of 1917 and held many leading posts. He was a ruthless man and had his principles. He believed everybody had to support himself. My mother didn’t have a good life with them.

In 1925 Lipshitz got a job in Moscow. At one time he was deputy minister of the meat industry of a republic and then became director of a big factory. In 1937 he was arrested 8 like many other revolutionaries and he disappeared for a long time. When he was released from prison, he was not allowed to reside in Moscow. This separated him from the family.

Yevgenia had three sons. One of them, David, was an artist, and so was another, whose name I don’t remember. Marat, the youngest, was eager to go to the front in 1941. He was under the recruitment age, but he managed to get enrolled. He perished in the first month of the war. Yevgenia died in 1967.

My mother studied in a grammar school. She loved music, literature, theater and art. My mother’s family must have spoken Yiddish among themselves. My mother could speak it well. The family was probably not so religious. My mother didn’t go to synagogue or lit candles on Saturday. We observed some traditions and on Pesach my mother made some dishes from matzah, but this was merely all. As far as I know, the family traditionally bought their children new clothes before holidays.

After the revolution my mother finished a secondary school. She was good at music and had a good voice. She entered the Vocal Faculty of Odessa Conservatory, but she only studied two years there. The hard conditions of her life at her sister’s, lack of food forced her to give up her studies. She did the laundry and worked as a baby sitter as much as she could to earn at least something. In 1925 her sister’s family moved to Moscow. My mother didn’t have anybody to seek support in Odessa, when she met the young, interesting and reliable Boris Bashmet, who was her rescue.

At first my parents were renting a room before they got a room of their own in Knizhny Lane in Odessa where I was born in 1926. I remember our yard surrounded by two- and three-storied houses with many apartments and many tenants in them. There was a common toilet in a corner in the yard. In the middle of this yard there was a big branchy tree. It seemed huge to me then. Most of the tenants were Jewish. There was one old Greek man, a shoemaker, with his wife, and a couple of Russian families.

I remember Tsynishin. He worked in the shipyard and was a Stakhanovets. [Editor’s note: this title was awarded to the workers who displayed advanced performance, exceeding their work scopes during a shift.] He received a good salary, bonuses, gifts, but he was an unrestrained drunkard. I remember his drunk yelling and anti-Semitic demonstrations. In the morning he made the rounds of apartments to apologize for his conduct. He was the poorest man in our neighborhood. There were also educated families. The son of one such family was my friend, Sokolovskiy, a very talented boy. He was about two years older than me. He perished at the front during the Great Patriotic War.

There were many routinely rows in the yard: one housewife began telling off another housewife for rushing up somebody’s laundry getting dry on a line, somebody’s child walked somewhere wrong, somebody left a door open and so on. These rows were actually like theatrical performances. My mother never got involved in such rows. She got along with the neighbors and didn’t come into conflict with people in general. She had a good sense of humor. The others respected her for her voice. She used to sing romances or songs popular in the 1920-30s. When the weather was warm, housewives did their cooking on primus stoves in the yard. [Primus stove: a small portable stove with a container for about 1 liter of kerosene that was pumped into burners.] They also did their laundry, washed their children or themselves in washtubs. There was a pump in the center of the yard and tenants fetched water in buckets.

Childhood

Our apartment consisted of one 17-square meter room and a 10-12 square meter kitchen. The front door led to the kitchen from the yard. There was a wood or coal-stoked stove in the corner of the kitchen that served for cooking and heating. There was a basement in the house where we had a cell to keep vegetables. There were two windows in the room, a wardrobe, beds and a mirror on the wall – this was all, I think. There were carpets on the walls that my father made.

My mother was crazy about cleanliness and we had to watch ourselves to keep things clean. Everything was white: the tablecloth, napkins and cover sheets. My mother often whitewashed the stove. She cooked delicious traditional food. I remember the monotony of similar dishes: Jewish stew, chicken broth with beans and boiled cereals. Our family liked sharp tasting dishes: ground radishes with oil and onions, herring and sauerkraut, and we always had them at meals. My mother made gefilte fish, soup and borsch, but not so often. She cooked egg plants deliciously; they were popular in Odessa: she stewed them ground with vegetables, filled them with carrots and onions and pickled them. My mother also baked strudels and cookies. We had water melons and melons till late autumn.

My mother also made dishes with matzah on Pesach. We bought matzah at the synagogue every year and brought it home in a tin tub called ‘balia.’ My father went to buy matzah at the synagogue. He sometimes took me with him, but my mother never went to the synagogue. My mother bought a chicken to cook it for dinner on Pesach. We had a special dinner, but we didn’t have any special crockery for Pesach. My father went to the synagogue on other holidays: Simchat Torah for sure. He had a prayer book, tallit and other accessories for praying. I remember the synagogue on holidays, the candle light, everybody dancing, but my father didn’t take me inside. We, boys, watched it through holes in the fence.

Before I turned eight, I was only allowed to play in the yard. My mother even beat me or punished me making me stand in a corner, if I left the yard. She was afraid of bad influence of hooligans, ‘shpana’ as they were called in Odessa. When I turned eight, my parents used to send me to buy bread in a shop. I hardly ever went out with my parents. They were busy at work and I spent my time playing with other children in the yard.

We lived in Knizhny Lane that was called so due to the nice building of the library in the center of it. When I turned ten, I began to borrow books from this library. My mother read a lot and we had many books at home: my mother read Russian and world classics and was also fond of detective stories. I remember a story teller in Odessa. His surname was Haimovich and he always told sensations and news. There were always rumors that either a comet would fly by, or a meridian had broken and they spread fast and then there were books on this subject written. We could also borrow books from him: he charged 2-3 rubles for 3-4 days.

My mother loved opera and ballet, and she took me with her to the theater. I remember how I admired the luxury of the Opera Theater. My father never went with us. He read newspapers and magazines, but I never remember him discussing what he had read. My father had a simple attitude toward the Soviet power. He had a saying: ‘never ask the tsar for anything better.’ My father belonged to the people who understood that they had to earn their living and food, and everything else was all right. My father worked, worked and worked. He sold what he made at the Privoz market where he had a folding table, a frame where he embroidered and a display board where he had all these embroideries. However, he didn’t like to sell his articles. Sometimes, he made carpets by orders.

He had days off on Soviet holidays: 1st May, 7th November 9 and on Jewish holidays. My father didn’t work on Saturday. He didn’t take part in politics. Before 7th November my father went to an artist to have him paint ‘Long live 7th November’ or ‘20th anniversary of October.’ My father embroidered these paintings and sold the rugs. The Soviet power only appeared in our house in the person of a financial inspector, but my father found a common language with him. He got along well with people. I also knew how to develop a tax declaration, when I went to school.

My parents had their friends who got together to play cards and lotto in our home. They also sang Jewish and popular songs. My father knew many songs. Most of their friends were Jews. We had a record player and many records. In summer my parents put it on the window sill and opened the window and then everybody in the yard could hear the music. Later we got a radio, a big one. This was the first radio set in our yard and I was very proud of it.

In 1933 there was famine 10, I remember it well: we were miserably poor then. I remember that my mother and father had golden rings and they took them to the Torgsin store 11 to buy bread or something else. My father even had to take our pillows to sell them at the market. My father went to work at the garment factory. We didn’t have coal or wood to heat the apartment. I fell ill with measles. It created complications with my eyes: I had a squint, poor sight and long sight. I even couldn’t go to school at the age of seven: my parents decided I needed to get better.

A year later life began to improve. To prepare me for school my mother decided to send me to a Froebel tutor 12 who had finished a Froebel school before the revolution of 1917. There was a group of children. She taught us to read and write in Russian. She was a Jew, Faina Markovna, an intelligent woman. She was very good at teaching children. We sang and learned poems, went for walks in parks, and in the evening she took us to our homes. We had our snacks with us and our Froebel tutor watched that we ate what we had with us.

I went to the second grade of a Russian secondary school for boys and girls. There were many Jewish children in my class. Our class tutor was a Jew, a kind woman. Nobody distinguished us by nationality. Like everybody else I became a young Octobrist 13, and then a pioneer 14. I don’t remember anything special about the admission ceremonies, probably, I didn’t care much. I was an active pioneer. I issued our class wall newspapers, one to the 100th anniversary of Pushkin 15, and also recited poems at concerts. I had friends, we used to play football on a ground near school. My friend Sokolovskiy and I took part in contests at school. One of them was called ‘Years and towns,’ and we read encyclopedias and maps to be able to answer questions. I studied well in the junior grades, but then I was less successful. Mathematic was a difficult subject for me.

In 1935, on 17th February my sister was born. This was a grand event in our life. I even made a calendar and marked that she was born at 10 o’clock. My sister was named Emma, it was close to my mother’s name Etl. She was a lovely fair girl, everybody liked her and she loved all.

My father quit his job at the factory and worked at home. Besides, he and Aizik worked together making color pictures, painted cards and sold them. They were in great demand at the Privoz.

In 1937 I was an eleven-year-old boy. We believed everything at school and on the radio unconditionally. We didn’t doubt it that Stalin would protect us against enemies and traitors. My friend and I removed portraits of enemies of the people 16, devoted communists, recent legendary commanders, favorites of the people, who had only recently been our idols, from books. They told us at school and on the radio that this person was an enemy of the people and that one was a murderer, and we believed it without going into detail.

This subject was not discussed at home, but there were talks about the war. We knew about the horrific war in Europe. We didn’t know any details, what Hitler was doing to Jews, but we understood there was bloodshed and towns on fire. In 1939 people said there was going to be a war in 1940, in 1940 they said there was to be a war in 1941. These were mere talks for me, and only when bombs began to fall on us, we realized this was the war.

During the war

I remember well the day of 22nd June 1941. In the morning we heard the roar of planes and heard the firing. We ran outside. We were terribly scared. The thing is, there was a raid on Odessa on the first day of the war and then there was a month of quiet. My father was called to the military office; he was subject to recruitment. There was an order to take all radios to the officials. We wrapped our radio set in a pillow case and sewed it on. We obtained a document to get it back later, but this never happened, of course.

Institutions and organizations began to evacuate. Our family didn’t hope to leave the town. Uncle Aizik’s friend, who worked in a railroad office, was responsible for the evacuation of equipment of a plant and had a railcar at his disposal to evacuate the family. He took my uncle’s family and us into this railcar. Our trip in the overcrowded freight railcar lasted over two months before we finally arrived in Central Asia. We had a suitcase of clothes, a record player and few records with us. There were many Jews from Bessarabia 17 in the railcar. They spoke Yiddish and I actually learned the language there.

People were getting off the train wherever they wanted. My uncle’s family got off in Saratov, but later they joined us in Central Asia. My mother was so scared that she decided to go as far as the train took us. So we arrived in Alma-Ata, the capital of Kazakhstan, about 3300 km from Kiev. Alma-Ata is an interesting town, but our life there was very hard. At first a Jewish family gave us shelter. We slept on the floor for a few months.

My mother rented an apartment from a very rude Kazakh man living in the suburb of the city. There was no wood to stoke the stove. There was a tree, a saxaul, in the yard, where I used to spend hours waiting for our landlord to drop me a branch from it. My little sister was ill, my mother worked as a cloakroom janitor in a theater and we received bread cards 18.

I went to the eighth grade at school. There were terrible anti-Semitic demonstrations in Alma-Ata and there was no escape from it. The main subject of it was that Jews were staying in the rear rather than going to the front. [Editor’s note: Many people evacuated to Central Asia during the Great Patriotic War, including many Jewish families. Many people had an idea that all Jewish population was in evacuation rather than at the front and anti-Semites spoke about it in mocking tones.] Russians talked about it at markets endlessly, though I never heard any Kazakh talking about it. I kept my father’s photograph that he had sent us from the front with me as evidence that there were Jews at the front.

My Jewish name Abram [Jewish names were targets of mockery, vulgar jokes and often exclusion at the time] provoked all kinds of trouble for me, and my mother and I decided to change it to Arkadiy without making any changes in my documents. Since then I’ve been called Arkadiy at school, college, work and home.

My mother was very concerned about me fearing that I would have to go to the front, when I became of age. Frankly speaking, I had no desire to go to the front. My sight became so poor in Alma-Ata that it was impossible to find proper glasses for me. The medical commission attested me as ‘not fit for military service,’ but my mother kept worrying. She often cried, my sister was ill and my father disappeared and we didn’t know anything about him.

My father was a private in anti-tank troops. He was in captivity, and he was wounded and had to stay in hospital. Near Stalingrad he was sent to a village riding a horse. There he was captured by Germans and they intended to shoot him. A Russian reported on him saying: ‘But he is a Jew,’ and Germans were going to kill him, but my father managed to escape. My father hid on a stove and the Germans were too busy to look for him.

When the village was liberated, my father was sent to a punitive company being a former prisoner-of-war. At that time prisoners-of-war were treated as traitors. He was wounded by a mine and taken to a hospital. There were splinters from this mine in his legs for a long time, and he also lost few fingers. When he was discharged from this hospital in 1944, he came to us in Alma-Ata. He arrived walking on crutches. He decided to learn to ride a bicycle and it took him a long time. We had to help him on and off the bicycle since he could hardly move at first.

By this time Uncle Aizik, his family and Grandmother Feiga moved in with us. My father and his younger brother obtained a license for making candy. They rented a facility, purchased sugar and boiled candy using some interesting technology. They boiled sugar, added color agents, poured this mass into pans and cut it. Then they cooled, dried, sugar powdered and sold them. They also made ice cream for sale. My uncle had a stand at the market. They also bought gauze, colored it and made curtains. They also painted cards. My father was very handy. 

Alma-Ata became a cultural center during the war: many Moscow theaters, cinema studios and popular art activists evacuated there. Uncle Aizik went to work as a scenery laborer at the musical comedy theater and always took me to rehearsals with him. The Moscow Jewish Theater was also in this building, and it was all very interesting. There were many Jewish performances in Yiddish. I remember ‘The Wandering Stars’ and ‘Tevye the Milkman’ by Sholem Aleichem 19. There was a beautiful Opera Theater where we often went. I met my first love in Alma-Ata: she was Clara, a Jewish girl. Her father was a high ranking official in a ministry. I met her in a company of young people. She was a theater-goer and took me with her.

I had finished school by then, passed my exam externally since I hardly ever attended classes. There was a theater for children and teens created in Kazakhstan. They were hiring actors and I went there immediately. I passed all exams, sketches and music tests, and they admitted me to the preparatory group. However, when it came to the issue of my employment at the theater my mother was sobbing bitterly. The theater didn’t release you from army service and she was afraid that I might be recruited despite my poor sight. 

So I went to the preparatory course at the Railroad College that provided a release from army service and a bread card for 800 grams bread per day while other cards were for 400 grams. This all played a significant role. I wouldn’t say that I disliked this profession and regret that it happened so. During my first year, when there were general subjects, I didn’t like them and spent more time organizing concerts and so on. Later I got fond of the automation subject. I defended my diploma well. Though I never became an outstanding specialist, I became a good engineer.

The 9th of May 1945, the Victory Day 20, was a very happy, but also a sad day for our family. The day before we received a notification that my father’s brother Grigoriy had perished. My father and Aizik were in no hurry to return home to start everything anew on the ruins.

Marriage and children

In 1946 my college was transferred to Leningrad. I had finished two years of studies and went to Leningrad with my college. I got accommodation in a hostel. We admired the theaters, museums and the highest cultural level of people in Leningrad. I was very fond of attending the amateur art club where I played in the amateur theater and was particularly good at playing strong characters. I met my future wife Maya Krechiver in the college theater. She wanted to be an actress and loved theater, but she never managed to realize her dream. She studied in Leningrad University and became a philologist. 

Maya was born in Kiev in 1926. Her father Zelik Krechiver, born in 1896, an old communist, worked as chief of the planning department of the Ministry of Light Industry. Her mother Daria Shapchenko, born in 1908, very young, 16-17 years old, a beautiful Ukrainian woman, was a cleaning woman in this ministry and that was where they met and got married. Later she finished a college and became a design artist. Maya was their only child, but before the war her parents separated.

When the war began, her father before going to the front, made his daughter sit on his lap, gave her some money and clothes and said, ‘Go to Molotov [present Perm, Russia, 900 km from Moscow]’ where his brother and sister lived. Her mother was the director of a museum in Lubny [Ukraine, 200 km from Kiev]. She must have perished during another raid. There is no information about what happened to her. The father perished at the front defending Kiev in 1941. Maya stayed with her father’s sister in Perm. Aunt Revekka and her husband Boris Yelentuh became Maya’s family, and later they became family for me. Maya and I often saw each other. Her uncle was deputy director of the college and had an apartment in the hostel where I resided. We often went to the theater.

My parents remained in Alma-Ata till 1949. I went to visit them on vacations. My trip lasted six days, and I got a cheap ticket to sleep on the third-tier berth since I couldn’t afford to buy a more expensive ticket. My father also visited me in Leningrad and stayed with me at the hostel.

By the time of finishing college Maya and I already knew that we wanted to live our life together. At the end of 1948 we had our marriage registered in the registry office, and in the evening Aunt Revekka arranged a small dinner party. I got a job assignment 21 to Siberia. Maya’s uncle Boris pulled some strings for me. He was logistics manager of our college. At the very last moment I got another job assignment to the Northern Caucasian railroad, to the Russian town of Rostov-on-the-Don, 920 km from Kiev.

They were to provide an apartment to the young specialist, but instead, they rented one for me. Maya stayed to study in Leningrad. We corresponded, she came to me on vacations and I went to see her in Leningrad. She defended her diploma brilliantly in 1949, and she was already pregnant. On 3rd July 1949 our first son Yevgeniy was born.

Sometime later I went to Leningrad to take my wife and son to Rostov-on-the-Don. We got an apartment in a former office building on the bank of the Don. There was no bathroom or hot water in the apartment, but at that time hardly anybody lived with comforts. I worked in a railroad office. There were not many Jewish employees there. However, I remember these polemics and resolutions in the course of the struggle against cosmopolitism 22. It might seem that it had hardly anything to do with us in the technical environment, but my wife and I were very concerned at this period.

Then came another burst called the Doctors’ Plot 22. It was necessary to join the party to make a career. I submitted my application, but they refused to admit me and explained that  Jews could not be trusted. I remember that my colleagues stopped visiting doctors, and my manager used to repeat, ‘How do we go to a doctor now?’ There was a hostile attitude and distrust. Later, when it stopped after Stalin died, I remember the disappointment of those who appreciated this process.

Maya worked at school a little. On 24th January 1953 our son Yuri was born. Stalin’s death on 5th March 1953 wasn’t a big event for us. We spent all our time with little Yuri. Of course, we were concerned about what was to happen in the future, but I always remembered what our father said, ‘Don’t ask the tsar for anything better,’ and didn’t expect anything good from this regime. We lived our own life. We played in an amateur theater in Rostov. There was a good producer and what we did was quite serious. I went to work at a design institute and found this job more interesting. There were more Jewish employees there, but I didn’t notice any prejudiced attitudes.

By 1950 the Bashmet family gradually reunited in Lvov. Victor Lezhanskiy, the son-in-law of my father’s older brother Iosif, was director of a big enterprise in Lvov, and in the first years after the war it was easy to get an apartment here, and he helped all of them to get apartments and they moved to Lvov.

In 1952 my grandmother Feiga Bashmet died. She was very old and lived the end of her life with her younger son Aizik. My father continued making needles in Lvov and they were in demand. My mother was very ill. She always had a weak heart, but then she fell ill with cancer of the blood and glands. She died in late 1956. She was buried in the Jewish cemetery in Lvov. My father and 20-year-old Emma were left on their own. I realized that I had to support them and got a transfer to a similar design institute in Lvov. At that time we had a two-room apartment in Rostov that we exchanged for an apartment in Lvov in 1957.

In Lvov I climbed the career ladder promptly. In the 1960-1970s I worked as deputy director of the design institute. When our director died, everybody believed that I was to become director. The chief of the railroad department had a discussion with me and seemed to like what he heard, but later I was expressly told that the party district committee didn’t approve me due to my nationality. During the Soviet time a candidate for any official post was to be approved by the Communist Party district, town or central committees. So I remained to be deputy director of this institute. Many times I heard the others saying about me that I was a good specialist and a good man despite my being a Jew. When our institute was closed, I went to work at the railroad production site. I was chief engineer and when I became a pensioner, I stayed to work there as a dispatcher.

In 1957, when we moved to Lvov, Yevgeniy was eight. He went to the first grade here. Yuri was four years old. They grew up like all other Soviet children. They were pioneers and Komsomol 24 members and they were atheists, of course. Our boys were very different: if Yuri was born on a sunny day, Yevgeniy was born on a cloudy night. He studied at school poorly and always got involved in incidents. He was very musical and we decided to teach him to play the accordion. We bought an expensive accordion, but Yevgeniy didn’t want to play. We had to sell his accordion for peanuts.

He hardly managed to finish nine classes at school and went to serve in the army. By that time he learned to play the guitar, and in the army he played in a band. He served in a construction battalion in the Crimea. Once he fell asleep in a trench, caught a cold that developed into pleurisy and came home. We arranged for the medical treatment and sent him to a health center in the Crimea where he continued to play the guitar. Then he returned and played in bands, one and another, and then I made all arrangements for him to study in the railroad technical school. He was even admitted without exams. He left it after studying three years.

He married a woman with a five-year old daughter. Her name is Angela. It didn’t matter that his wife Nina Yeliseeva was not Jewish, but what mattered was that they didn’t get along. In 1986 their daughter Maria was born. Yevgeniy worked as a driver, then was a conductor in an orchestra, an entrepreneur, but nothing really worked out. Two years ago he moved to Germany with his family. Maria finished a choreographic college here and studies in a grammar school in Germany. She is a good girl.

We knew that Yuri had a talent for music since he was a child. He loved listening to records and later he learned to play the guitar by himself. Grandfather Boris gave him his first guitar. Maya sent him to a music school. We needed to buy a musical instrument for him. The cheapest instrument was a violin, so we bought him one and later we bought a piano. Yuri studied in a general school for the first four years and in the evening he had classes in the music school.

After finishing the fourth grade he went to study in the music school. He didn’t give up playing the guitar either. Some of his friends told him that it was easier to play the guitar and he didn’t have to spend all his time like he did playing the violin. The violin class was too full and teachers suggested that Yuri went to the class of viola players. They always offered viola to unsuccessful violin players. They asked my son, ‘Will you learn to play the viola?’, but he didn’t care – he didn’t know what it was like. We didn’t know it either. One musician whom we knew said, ‘It doesn’t matter what instrument you play: it’s important how you play it.’ It decided it all.

For a couple of years, in the fifth and sixth grades he continued to play the violin since he needed to have a stronger hand to be able to play the viola. In the seventh grade he started to play the viola. He played drills from morning till night and our neighbors were crazy about it, but he liked it and he was responsible. Other people paid their attention to Yuri and serious musicians took part in arranging his future. So he’s become the number one viola player in the world and an outstanding musician, and there have been about 50 pieces written for viola and for him, Yuri Bashmet.

He is very fond of playing the piano and plays it wonderfully. Yuri is also known as an outstanding conductor now. His wife Nathalia is a violinist. Their daughter Ksenia, born in 1980, is a pianist. She is married to Dmitriy Bulgakov, an oboe player. Their son Alexandr, born in 1986, declared there were too many musicians in the family already. He studies at the College of International Relations.

Yuri lives in Moscow and goes on tours to many countries. His schedule is busy for a few years ahead. Besides, Yuri is a public person. He takes part in many events: music festivals, contests, etc. In many interviews my son mentions his family. He says he had ‘a great mother,’ who took every effort to make him what he is now. He recalls Grandfather Boris with whom he was very close. He remembered that his grandfather used to send him a little money till his last days: ‘Young people always want something.’

Though our boys have been so different they’ve always been close to one another. They went to pioneer camps together and played in bands. Music tied them together. Yuri has always acknowledged that Yevgeniy is talented. My sons were raised knowing their Jewish spirit. They could pick up their grandfather or my jokes in Yiddish. They fought the neighbor’s children, when they heard their anti-Semitic expressions or teasing. When Yuri studied in the music school in Lvov, most of his classmates were Jewish, and so was their class tutor, a teacher of physics. This teacher humiliated the boys, gave them lower marks and told them off, so that the others did not suspect him in supporting his own kin. There were Jews, who were most of all afraid of being suspected of being Jews.

In 1969 my sister Emma died. She was young. I always loved her. She was an amazing person, kind and fair and never recognized the evil. Regretfully Emma was single. She was very ill. She had an ulcer in her stomach, consequences of the war and poor food. She was a philologist and worked in the library. She was very fond of Pushkin. She loved her nephews, my children, and spent a lot of time with them.

When the children were at school, my wife Maya was a housewife. To add to the family budget she made clothes at home. She had her clients. Later, when the children grew older, she went to work at the conservatory where she was chief dispatcher of the curriculum department. She did very well at work and her colleagues respected her. She worked till her last days. She had heart problems. Maya died from a stroke in 1985. I lost my big friend and a very close person. The two parts of her – the Slavic and Judaic ones – were in harmony in her, she never liked pressure on one or the other side. She hated anti-Semitism and didn’t like the Orthodox Jewish demonstrations, disregard or disrespect of other nations. She raised our children to share her vision.

My father was growing older and couldn’t work any longer. He received a pension of an invalid of the Great Patriotic War. I often went to see him and we talked a lot. He told me much about the history of the Bashmet family. He died at the age of 87 in 1992. I have his prayer book, tallit and some other religious accessories. He went to the synagogue in Lvov, and to pay my respects to him I go to the synagogue four times, during readings of the prayer of commemoration of parents.

Recent years

I was enthusiastic about perestroika 25. I believed that it was the right turn. I couldn’t imagine the fall of the Soviet Union. Like any other manager I propagated the Soviet way of life, conducted political classes and said things that even I knew were lies. Sooner or later this propaganda had to fall apart, the things were getting worse and worse. I saluted the independence of Ukraine. I believed that every nation must have a state, but I could never guess that this independence would result in what we have now. This nationalism is not normal, I don’t understand how people can be so intolerant to others.

I’ve traveled to Israel three times. My son Yuri paid for my trips. This is a wonderful country, exotic, but still it is not mine. I don’t remember my reaction when Israel was established – it was far away from me, but now that I’ve been there, I understand how wonderful it is that there is this country, there is the land and the state.

However, I live my life here. I don’t even want to move to Moscow, though Yuri has a nice house out of the city and a nice five-bedroom apartment in the center of Moscow with all comforts, etc. Why would I need it? I have my friends and I am at home here. I meet with my old friends. I have a woman friend here, we see each other, she has a daughter and a family, but we meet when we can and go to theaters or listen to music. 

I often read lectures in the Hesed 26 about Yuri’s creative activities, show videos of my son’s concerts. I have 25 video tapes. Since I am an old man living alone, Hesed helps me with cleaning the apartment and doing the laundry, but they treat me like they do everybody else. I try to observe traditions that my father developed in me, but of course, I am not religious. I am just interested in the history of the Jewish people and I am an active person. Yiddish helps me – I can understand what people say and can talk.

Glossary:

1 Yuri Bashmet (b

1953): Bashmet became the youngest person ever to be appointed to a professorship at the Moscow Conservatoire. In 1976, Bashmet won first prize at the International Viola Competition in Munich, which launched his international career. Sony Classical released his first recording for the label this past autumn - an arrangement for viola and string orchestra of Brahms' Clarinet Quintet and Shostakovich's Quartet No.13 performed with the Moscow Soloists. In 1992 Bashmet began working with a new group, Moscow Soloists, which he directs himself. This group is composed of musicians nominated by professors at the Moscow Conservatoire as the cream of the new generation of string players. The Moscow Soloists have been rapturously received in Moscow, Athens, Amsterdam, Paris and at the BBC Promenade Concerts in London.

2 Annexation of Eastern Poland

According to a secret clause in the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact defining Soviet and German territorial spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union occupied Eastern Poland in September 1939. In early November the newly annexed lands were divided up between the Ukrainian and the Belarusian Soviet Republics..

3 Odessa

A town in Ukraine on the Black Sea coast. One of the largest industrial, cultural, scholarly and resort centers in Ukraine. Founded in the 15th century in the place of the Tatar village Khadjibey. In 1764 the Turks built the fortress Eni-Dunia near that village. After the Russian-Turkish war in 1787-91 Odessa was taken by Russia and the town was officially renamed Odessa. Under the rule of Herzog Richelieu (1805-1814) Odessa became the chief town in Novorossiya province. On 17th January 1918 Soviet rule was established in the town. During World War II, from August - October 1941, the town defended itself heroically from the German attacks.

4 Great Patriotic War

On 22nd June 1941 at 5 o'clock in the morning Nazi Germany attacked the Soviet Union without declaring war. This was the beginning of the so-called Great Patriotic War. The German blitzkrieg, known as Operation Barbarossa, nearly succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in the months that followed. Caught unprepared, the Soviet forces lost whole armies and vast quantities of equipment to the German onslaught in the first weeks of the war. By November 1941 the German army had seized the Ukrainian Republic, besieged Leningrad, the Soviet Union's second largest city, and threatened Moscow itself. The war ended for the Soviet Union on 9th May 1945.

5 NEP

The so-called New Economic Policy of the Soviet authorities was launched by Lenin in 1921. It meant that private business was allowed on a small scale in order to save the country ruined by the Revolution of 1917 and the Russian Civil War. They allowed priority development of private capital and entrepreneurship. The NEP was gradually abandoned in the 1920s with the introduction of the planned economy.

6 Civil War (1918-1920)

The Civil War between the Reds (the Bolsheviks) and the Whites (the anti-Bolsheviks), which broke out in early 1918, ravaged Russia until 1920. The Whites represented all shades of anti-communist groups - Russian army units from World War I, led by anti-Bolshevik officers, by anti-Bolshevik volunteers and some Mensheviks and Social Revolutionaries. Several of their leaders favored setting up a military dictatorship, but few were outspoken tsarists. Atrocities were committed throughout the Civil War by both sides. The Civil War ended with Bolshevik military victory, thanks to the lack of cooperation among the various White commanders and to the reorganization of the Red forces after Trotsky became commissar for war. It was won, however, only at the price of immense sacrifice; by 1920 Russia was ruined and devastated. In 1920 industrial production was reduced to 14% and agriculture to 50% as compared to 1913.

7 Russian Revolution of 1917

Revolution in which the tsarist regime was overthrown in the Russian Empire and, under Lenin, was replaced by the Bolshevik rule. The two phases of the Revolution were: February Revolution, which came about due to food and fuel shortages during World War I, and during which the tsar abdicated and a provisional government took over. The second phase took place in the form of a coup led by Lenin in October/November (October Revolution) and saw the seizure of power by the Bolsheviks.

8 Great Terror (1934-1938)

During the Great Terror, or Great Purges, which included the notorious show trials of Stalin's former Bolshevik opponents in 1936-1938 and reached its peak in 1937 and 1938, millions of innocent Soviet citizens were sent off to labor camps or killed in prison. The major targets of the Great Terror were communists. Over half of the people who were arrested were members of the party at the time of their arrest. The armed forces, the Communist Party, and the government in general were purged of all allegedly dissident persons; the victims were generally sentenced to death or to long terms of hard labor. Much of the purge was carried out in secret, and only a few cases were tried in public 'show trials'. By the time the terror subsided in 1939, Stalin had managed to bring both the Party and the public to a state of complete submission to his rule. Soviet society was so atomized and the people so fearful of reprisals that mass arrests were no longer necessary. Stalin ruled as absolute dictator of the Soviet Union until his death in March 1953.

9 October Revolution Day

October 25 (according to the old calendar), 1917 went down in history as victory day for the Great October Socialist Revolution in Russia. This is the most significant date in the history of the USSR. Today the anniversary is celebrated as 'Day of Accord and Reconciliation' on November 7.

10 Famine in Ukraine

In 1920 a deliberate famine was introduced in the Ukraine causing the death of millions of people. It was arranged in order to suppress those protesting peasants who did not want to join the collective farms. There was another dreadful deliberate famine in 1930-1934 in the Ukraine. The authorities took away the last food products from the peasants. People were dying in the streets, whole villages became deserted. The authorities arranged this specifically to suppress the rebellious peasants who did not want to accept Soviet power and join collective farms.

11 Torgsin stores

Special retail stores, which were established in larger Russian cities in the 1920s with the purpose of selling goods to foreigners. Torgsins sold commodities that were in short supply for hard currency or exchanged them for gold and jewelry, accepting old coins as well. The real aim of this economic experiment that lasted for two years was to swindle out all gold and valuables from the population for the industrial development of the country.

12 Froebel Institute

F. W. A. Froebel (1783-1852), German educational theorist, developed the idea of raising children in kindergartens. In Russia the Froebel training institutions functioned from 1872-1917 The three-year training was intended for tutors of children in families and kindergartens.

13 Young Octobrist

In Russian Oktyabrenok, or 'pre-pioneer', designates Soviet children of seven years or over preparing for entry into the pioneer organization.

14 All-Union pioneer organization

A communist organization for teenagers between 10 and 15 years old (cf: boy-/ girlscouts in the US). The organization aimed at educating the young generation in accordance with the communist ideals, preparing pioneers to become members of the Komsomol and later the Communist Party. In the Soviet Union, all teenagers were pioneers.

15 Pushkin, Alexandr (1799-1837)

Russian poet and prose writer, among the foremost figures in Russian literature. Pushkin established the modern poetic language of Russia, using Russian history for the basis of many of his works. His masterpiece is Eugene Onegin, a novel in verse about mutually rejected love. The work also contains witty and perceptive descriptions of Russian society of the period. Pushkin died in a duel.

16 Enemy of the people

Soviet official term; euphemism used for real or assumed political opposition.

17 Bessarabia

Historical area between the Prut and Dnestr rivers, in the southern part of Odessa region. Bessarabia was part of Russia until the Revolution of 1917. In 1918 it declared itself an independent republic, and later it united with Romania. The Treaty of Paris (1920) recognized the union but the Soviet Union never accepted this. In 1940 Romania was forced to cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the USSR. The two provinces had almost 4 million inhabitants, mostly Romanians. Although Romania reoccupied part of the territory during World War II the Romanian peace treaty of 1947 confirmed their belonging to the Soviet Union. Today it is part of Moldova.

18 Card system

The food card system regulating the distribution of food and industrial products was introduced in the USSR in 1929 due to extreme deficit of consumer goods and food. The system was cancelled in 1931. In 1941, food cards were reintroduced to keep records, distribute and regulate food supplies to the population. The card system covered main food products such as bread, meat, oil, sugar, salt, cereals, etc. The rations varied depending on which social group one belonged to, and what kind of work one did. Workers in the heavy industry and defense enterprises received a daily ration of 800 g (miners - 1 kg) of bread per person; workers in other industries 600 g. Non-manual workers received 400 or 500 g based on the significance of their enterprise, and children 400 g. However, the card system only covered industrial workers and residents of towns while villagers never had any provisions of this kind. The card system was cancelled in 1947.

19 Sholem Aleichem (pen name of Shalom Rabinovich) (1859-1916)

Yiddish author and humorist, a prolific writer of novels, stories, feuilletons, critical reviews, and poems in Yiddish, Hebrew and Russian. He also contributed regularly to Yiddish dailies and weeklies. In his writings he described the life of Jews in Russia, creating a gallery of bright characters. His creative work is an alloy of humor and lyricism, accurate psychological and details of everyday life. He founded a literary Yiddish annual called Di Yidishe Folksbibliotek (The Popular Jewish Library), with which he wanted to raise the despised Yiddish literature from its mean status and at the same time to fight authors of trash literature, who dragged Yiddish literature to the lowest popular level. The first volume was a turning point in the history of modern Yiddish literature. Sholem Aleichem died in New York in 1916. His popularity increased beyond the Yiddish-speaking public after his death. Some of his writings have been translated into most European languages and his plays and dramatic versions of his stories have been performed in many countries. The dramatic version of Tevye the Milkman became an international hit as a musical (Fiddler on the Roof) in the 1960s.

20 Victory Day in Russia (9th May)

National holiday to commemorate the defeat of Nazi Germany and the end of World War II and honor the Soviets who died in the war.

21 Mandatory job assignment in the USSR

Graduates of higher educational institutions had to complete a mandatory 2-year job assignment issued by the institution from which they graduated. After finishing this assignment young people were allowed to get employment at their discretion in any town or organization.

22 Campaign against ‘cosmopolitans’

The campaign against 'cosmopolitans', i.e. Jews, was initiated in articles in the central organs of the Communist Party in 1949. The campaign was directed primarily at the Jewish intelligentsia and it was the first public attack on Soviet Jews as Jews. 'Cosmopolitans' writers were accused of hating the Russian people, of supporting Zionism, etc. Many Yiddish writers as well as the leaders of the Jewish Anti-Fascist Committee were arrested in November 1948 on charges that they maintained ties with Zionism and with American 'imperialism'. They were executed secretly in 1952. The anti-Semitic Doctors' Plot was launched in January 1953. A wave of anti-Semitism spread through the USSR. Jews were removed from their positions, and rumors of an imminent mass deportation of Jews to the eastern part of the USSR began to spread. Stalin's death in March 1953 put an end to the campaign against 'cosmopolitans.'

23 Doctors’ Plot

The Doctors' Plot was an alleged conspiracy of a group of Moscow doctors to murder leading government and party officials. In January 1953, the Soviet press reported that nine doctors, six of whom were Jewish, had been arrested and confessed their guilt. As Stalin died in March 1953, the trial never took place. The official paper of the Party, the Pravda, later announced that the charges against the doctors were false and their confessions obtained by torture. This case was one of the worst anti-Semitic incidents during Stalin's reign. In his secret speech at the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956 Khrushchev stated that Stalin wanted to use the Plot to purge the top Soviet leadership.

24 Komsomol

Communist youth political organization created in 1918. The task of the Komsomol was to spread the ideas of communism and involve the worker and peasant youth in building the Soviet Union. The Komsomol also aimed at giving a communist upbringing by involving the worker youth in the political struggle, supplemented by theoretical education. The Komsomol was more popular than the Communist Party because with its aim of education people could accept uninitiated young proletarians, whereas party members had to have at least a minimal political qualification.

25 Perestroika (Russian for restructuring)

Soviet economic and social policy of the late 1980s, associated with the name of Soviet politician Mikhail Gorbachev. The term designated the attempts to transform the stagnant, inefficient command economy of the Soviet Union into a decentralized, market-oriented economy. Industrial managers and local government and party officials were granted greater autonomy, and open elections were introduced in an attempt to democratize the Communist Party organization. By 1991, perestroika was declining and was soon eclipsed by the dissolution of the USSR.

26 Hesed

Meaning care and mercy in Hebrew, Hesed stands for the charity organization founded by Amos Avgar in the early 20th century. Supported by Claims Conference and Joint Hesed helps for Jews in need to have a decent life despite hard economic conditions and encourages development of their self-identity. Hesed provides a number of services aimed at supporting the needs of all, and particularly elderly members of the society. The major social services include: work in the center facilities (information, advertisement of the center activities, foreign ties and free lease of medical equipment); services at homes (care and help at home, food products delivery, delivery of hot meals, minor repairs); work in the community (clubs, meals together, day-time polyclinic, medical and legal consultations); service for volunteers (training programs). The Hesed centers have inspired a real revolution in the Jewish life in the FSU countries. People have seen and sensed the rebirth of the Jewish traditions of humanism. Currently over eighty Hesed centers exist in the FSU countries. Their activities cover the Jewish population of over eight hundred settlements.
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