The Jewish life began to improve after Ukraine announced independence. When in 1999 Hesed was established in Uzhgorod, it became easier for Jews to live. Hesed takes care of us. We receive food and medications and those who need medical treatment can get it free in the hospital of Hesed. Hesed involves younger people and adults and children in the Jewish life and gives them opportunity to study the Jewish history, religion and traditions. However, when Hesed was established there appeared to be about 600 Jews in Uzhgorod. Where did they come from? Many Jews perished during World War II. Over 200 of my contemporaries were taken away from Uzhgorod and only 6 of them came back. It’s hard to imagine how many people in total were taken away: younger and older than me. When it became advantageous to be a Jew they forgot that they had concealed their Jewish identity for many decades. I don’t think they are Jews.
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Ladislav Roth Biography
If you are a Jew why don’t you go to the synagogue? Why do you become a Jew only when you are going to receive something? Even recently only 10-15 people came to the synagogue. Now there are many more and young people begin to observe Jewish traditions. It is undoubtedly an accomplishment of Hesed. I have attended the synagogue for five years. On Friday I go there alone and then my grandson comes to take me home. I also celebrate holidays in Hesed. Of course, this is my tribute to traditions since I haven’t become religious, but I try to take part in the Jewish life and Jewish community. I’ve always identified myself as a Jew and have been proud of it. My son, grandson and great grandson also attend Hesed. When I ask my 6-year-old great grandson to say ‘Hallo’ to me he shouts with joy ‘Shalom’. And when I ask him who he is Andras says proudly: ‘Jew!’.
After the wedding my parents bought an apartment in a 2-storied house in Sobranetskaya Street on the outskirt of Uzhgorod. [The street was called different in 1920, when it was transferred from Hungary to Czechoslovakia. Most probably the Hungarian street name was changed to a Slovak/Czech one. Sobranetskaya is the contemporary Ukrainian name of the street.] This street ended where the farmlands of a neighboring village began. Our apartment was on the first floor on the right. There were two rooms, a kitchen, a closet and a bathroom. There was a common laundry in the basement. The laundry was dried in the attic. There was an orchard in a big yard and tenants of each of four apartments in this house had their plot of land in the garden. Across the street there was a house with a deep basement. Since there were no fridges then tenants kept their food stocks in this basement. My mother kept food preserves for winter in this basement. She made pickles and tinned tomatoes and jam without sugar. We bought stocks of potatoes, carrots, onions and beetroots for winter.
By the time he got married my father worked as senior waiter in Bercsenyi restaurant. My mother was a housewife after she got married. We were wealthy. This lasted until the early 1940s.
My brother and I were circumcised in accordance with Jewish traditions.
My father was a neolog. Neologs were religious, but they didn’t have patriarchal looks. They didn’t have a beard or payes, they didn’t wear a tallit or common for Jews round black hats or black jackets. Only Hasidim looked that way. There were many Hasidim in Uzhgorod. They had a synagogue on their own and neologs went to another synagogue. [Neologs and Orthodox maintained separate communities in Hungary.] When I asked my father why neologs didn’t have as many Jewish holidays as Hasidim my father explained that it wasn’t necessary to observe all Jewish traditions. It was important to have a heart of a Jew and it didn’t matter how one dressed or what holidays one celebrated. It was important to identify oneself as a Jew and that was all.
My father wore common clothes and had his hair cut short.
My mother had a different opinion. Though she didn’t wear a wig and dressed in fashion of the time she found it necessary to celebrate Sabbath at home, celebrate Jewish holidays and follow kashrut. I don’t remember that my parents argued about it one single time. My mother cooked kosher food and watched that meat and dairy products did not mix. There was a shochet nearby and my mother had him slaughter her chickens. The shochet did not only slaughter the chickens, but he also identified whether they were kosher or not. My mother didn’t cook non-kosher chickens, but always gave them to her Hungarian neighbor. My mother liked cooking Jewish food. She often made chicken broth with little kneydlakh from matzah flour or broth with homemade noodles. Every week my mother bought a big goose for Sabbath. She melted goose fat and cooked on it.
My mother started her preparations for Sabbath on Friday morning. There was a Jewish bakery nearby where they sold bread and challah for Sabbath. My mother bought bread, but she baked challah at home. We had a big stove with an oven in the kitchen. My mother baked challah and then she also made cakes or a tort for Sabbath. She fried a goose in the oven and made gefilte fish. When her cooking was over she put a pot with cholnt into the oven. Then my mother’s sister came and they went to the mikveh. We had a big bathtub in the bathroom, but on Friday my mother followed the ritual going to the mikveh. Other women came to wash and make pedicure and manicure there. Then my mother and Ilona went to a hairdresser. My mother came home with a beautiful hairdo and put on a fancy dress.
My father often worked in the evening, including Friday. Regardless of whether my father was or wasn’t at home my mother lit candles and prayed over them. Then we all sat down to dinner. On the next day, if my father was working, my mother took the children to visit her sister or grandmother Zali, my father’s mother. Sometimes my mother’s sister Ilona and her children came to visit us. We played with our cousins and my mother and her sister talked having coffee and cakes. Sometimes we went to walk in the town park. My parents didn’t go to the synagogue on Sabbath. Neologs didn’t recognize a ban for work on Saturday. My mother heated a meal on Saturday and lit lamps in the evening.
My father often worked in the evening, including Friday. Regardless of whether my father was or wasn’t at home my mother lit candles and prayed over them. Then we all sat down to dinner. On the next day, if my father was working, my mother took the children to visit her sister or grandmother Zali, my father’s mother. Sometimes my mother’s sister Ilona and her children came to visit us. We played with our cousins and my mother and her sister talked having coffee and cakes. Sometimes we went to walk in the town park. My parents didn’t go to the synagogue on Sabbath. Neologs didn’t recognize a ban for work on Saturday. My mother heated a meal on Saturday and lit lamps in the evening.
My parents only went to the synagogue on Yom Kippur or on anniversaries of death of my father’s father and my mother’s parents. [Yahrzeit] There were two holidays celebrated at home: Pesach and Yom Kippur. My mother kept her crockery for Pesach in the attic. It was taken down on the eve off Pesach when other dishes were taken away. There was special crockery for Pesach and if there were not enough utensils then pans and casseroles were koshered. There was a special spot for koshering on the bank of the Uzh River, near the Hasid synagogue. There was a huge pot with boiling water. People dropped their utensils into the pot and a shochet told them when they could take it out. We always had matzah at Pesach. Only few stores sold kosher matzah, but there was also matzah sold in many other stores. However, we also ate bread at Pesach. My mother made traditional food at Pesach: chicken broth, gefilte fish, chicken neck stuffed with fried flour and chicken giblets. There was always strudel from matzah flour filled with raisins and jam. My mother kept goose fat in special pots in the basement. My mother also bought wine for Pesach at the synagogue. In the evening we sat down to the table. My mother always served all traditional food: boiled meat, hard-boiled eggs, horseradish and salty water in a saucer. My father didn’t conduct seder. We just said a prayer.
On Chanukkah my mother lit candles in the chanukkiyah. Sometimes we had guests and they gave us some money. [Chanukkah gelt] This was all about celebration of Chanukkah. We always celebrated Yom Kippur at home. My parents celebrated it according to traditions. On the evening before Yom Kippur we had a sufficient dinner. Fast began after the first star appeared in the sky. My parents fasted 24 hours. We didn’t fast when we were small. At the age of 6 children began to fast half a day and at the age of ten – 24 hours like adults. We always had the Kapores ritual on Yom Kippur. My mother bought white chickens for Ella and herself and white roosters for my father, my younger brother and me. They were to be turned around our heads and we had to say: ‘May you be my atonement’. Then my mother took these chickens to the synagogue and they gave them to the poor.
My parents stayed in the synagogue a whole day on Yom Kippur. They began to take me with them when I turned 10 years old. Every visitor had a big candle with him. Candles were burning since morning and it was hard to breathe. I felt giddy and couldn’t wait to take a breath of fresh air. My mother had lemon peels wrapped in a handkerchief with her. When she felt giddy she smelled them and it made her feel better. My father and I were downstairs and my mother was upstairs where women sat. Sermon in the synagogue lasted until the first evening star. Then the fast was over and it was allowed to go home to have dinner.
My parents stayed in the synagogue a whole day on Yom Kippur. They began to take me with them when I turned 10 years old. Every visitor had a big candle with him. Candles were burning since morning and it was hard to breathe. I felt giddy and couldn’t wait to take a breath of fresh air. My mother had lemon peels wrapped in a handkerchief with her. When she felt giddy she smelled them and it made her feel better. My father and I were downstairs and my mother was upstairs where women sat. Sermon in the synagogue lasted until the first evening star. Then the fast was over and it was allowed to go home to have dinner.
We spoke Hungarian at home. There were Slovak, Czech, Romanian, Jewish, German and Hungarian schools in Uzhgorod. My parents sent me and then my younger brother to a Slovak school. My sister went to a Czech school in the center of the town. The Slovak school was near our house, so I guess, that was why we were sent there. [Besides geographical proximity the reason for choosing Slovak and Czech schools for Hungarian speaking Jewish children probably was getting accustomed to the state languages.] There was no segregation of schoolchildren to Jews or non-Jews. There were few other Jewish children in my class, but we never faced any anti-Semitic attitudes. Well, truth to tell, I had an incident with a senior boy once. We had breakfast at home and took sandwiches to school to eat them during an interval. Once a senior pupil wanted to take my sandwich. I didn’t give it to him and he called me ‘zidovska svina’ [Slovak for Jewish pig]. I hit him. Then a teacher came to find out what happened. I told him and he stroked my hair. As for my offender, he was not allowed to come to school for two weeks. I was never hurt again.
Life was wonderful; during the Czech rule. One could travel to other countries When I studied at school, I decided to go to a football game in Budapest. I bought tickets to go there from an agency and they also arranged for a ticket for a game, hotel accommodations and meals for me. My parents could afford to pay for my trip. People also could go to work in other countries or visit their friends or relatives. My family visited the Klein family, my mother sister Ilona husband’s relatives, in Hungary. [After the break up of the Austro-Hungarian state -after World War I- many people ended up living in countries different from their friends’, families’ or part of their families’.
I studied in a primary school and a cheder. Cheder was in the center of the town. We had to pay for the cheder. There were 15-20 children in each class. In the first grade we studied Hebrew letters and then we learned to read. We could read a little in the second grade. We read with Yiddish translations. Later we read the Torah and the Talmud and discussed what we had read. Each of us had to prepare a report on an article from the Torah that we were learning at the moment. We went to school in the morning and then I went home for lunch and after lunch I went to cheder where our classes started at 2 p.m. We didn’t have classes in cheder on Saturday. There were classes at school on Saturday though. When there was a Jewish holidays on Satruday, Jewish children were allowed to stay home from school. I studied in cheder for 3 years and then I stopped going there. I can’t remember why.
In 1934 grandmother Zali Roth, my father’s mother, died. She was buried near grandfather in the Jewish cemetery in Uzhgorod. There was a Jewish funeral. My father recited the Kaddish over grandmother’s grave. Nobody sat the mourning [Shivah] after grandmother. It wasn’t customary with neologs.
At 13 I had bar mitzvah. My father and I went to the synagogue on Saturday. I was called to the Torah and read an article from the Torah. For the first time in my life I had a tallit on. It was quite a ceremony. In the evening we had guests at home and my mother made a festive dinner. They greeted my parents and me. I don’t remember any details, but I remember that it was very festive.
My father had liberal views and sympathized with communists. He didn’t join the Communist Party, but he was fond of communist ideas. My mother was against communism. She believed that if communists were negative about religion there could be nothing good about communism.
I finished school in 1936. My parents wanted me to continue my studies, but I wanted to be independent. I asked my father to help me become an apprentice waiter in Bercsenyi restaurant. I wanted to work and study in the trade school in Uzhgorod. I studied three years at school. Besides major subjects future waiters had to study confectionery, butcher and cooks’ trades.
Bercsenyi restaurant employed me. My father was senior waiter there. Another leading waiter was a Hungarian man whose surname was Lantosi. They worked in shifts: my father worked from morning till afternoon and then Lantosi came to work and next week my father came to work in the afternoon. Waiters also worked in shifts. Since I was just an apprentice I only came to work in the morning and stayed at work until afternoon. Only experienced waiters worked in the evening. There were 20 employees in the restaurant and 6-7 of them were Jews.
Bercsenyi restaurant employed me. My father was senior waiter there. Another leading waiter was a Hungarian man whose surname was Lantosi. They worked in shifts: my father worked from morning till afternoon and then Lantosi came to work and next week my father came to work in the afternoon. Waiters also worked in shifts. Since I was just an apprentice I only came to work in the morning and stayed at work until afternoon. Only experienced waiters worked in the evening. There were 20 employees in the restaurant and 6-7 of them were Jews.
I spent my vacations traveling. In 1938 my friend, my classmate in the trade school, and I spent two weeks in Switzerland. We traveled across Switzerland and spent few days skiing in a resort. This was inexpensive and apprentice waiter could well afford it.
At work I met Maria Leschinsky, a Slovakian girl from Goronda village [37 km from Uzhgorod, 670 km from Kiev] Uzhgorod district. Maria was one year older. She was born in 1921. We came to work at the same time. Maria was an apprentice of a cook. One year later she began to work as a cook. We began to meet and fell in love with one another. We worked the same shift and saw each other at work and after work. Maria was a Catholic. My parents or Maria’s parents had nothing against our marriage when we learned to earn our living. Maria’s parents had four sons and three daughters. Maria was the oldest of all children. Her father was a worker in a quarry and her mother was a housewife. They kept a cow and had a plot of land. They were poor and Maria’s parents were very happy that Maria was going into a nice family. They believed that Jewish men made the best husbands.
In 1938 Subcarpathia became Hungarian again. [According to the First Vienna Decision the predominantly ethnic Hungarian parts of Czechoslovakia – Southern Slovakia, including Uzhorod (Ungvar, Uzhgorod) and the rest of Southern Subcarpathia- were annexed to Hungary in 1938. The rest of Subcarpathia was occupied by Hungary in 1939, after the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia.] Many of the older residents of Subcarpathia had good memories about life during Austro-Hungary and looked forward to this change. They met the Hungarians like they would welcome dear guests. Nobody had an idea what fascism was like. Bercsenyi restaurant also prepared a welcome party. Only officers of the Hungarian army were allowed to go to restaurants and soldiers went to bars or taverns. The restaurant employees made dishes of Hungarian cuisine and prepared tables for officers.
The owner of the restaurant decided to engage more waiters so that guests didn’t have to wait. I was also told to stay in case they needed my assistance. In the evening about 15 Hungarian officers came to the restaurant. They were waited for: there were tables prepared for them, flowers and an orchestra was playing Hungarian tunes. The best waiter of the restaurant, a short Jewish man, waited on one of the tables. Officers drank a lot and at about 2 o’clock in the morning one of them, a handsome middle-aged man, called the waiter: Come here, you dirty little Jew!’ We all came to standstill. This was the first time we faced anything like this. We, waiters, were taught to avoid scandal by all means. This man went pale, but he looked calm on the outside. He came too the table and said: ‘I apologize, Mr. Officer, I will go home and get washed and won’t be dirty tomorrow’. Other officers began to calm down their comrade telling him that he was drunk and that there was nothing to make a fuss about. The incident hushed up, but there was a hard feeling about it. Later officers and gendarmes often came to our restaurant. Nothing of the kind happened again in the first year after Hungarians came to power, but every time Hungarian officers came to the restaurant this caused tension. There was no persecution of Jews in the first year.
The owner of the restaurant decided to engage more waiters so that guests didn’t have to wait. I was also told to stay in case they needed my assistance. In the evening about 15 Hungarian officers came to the restaurant. They were waited for: there were tables prepared for them, flowers and an orchestra was playing Hungarian tunes. The best waiter of the restaurant, a short Jewish man, waited on one of the tables. Officers drank a lot and at about 2 o’clock in the morning one of them, a handsome middle-aged man, called the waiter: Come here, you dirty little Jew!’ We all came to standstill. This was the first time we faced anything like this. We, waiters, were taught to avoid scandal by all means. This man went pale, but he looked calm on the outside. He came too the table and said: ‘I apologize, Mr. Officer, I will go home and get washed and won’t be dirty tomorrow’. Other officers began to calm down their comrade telling him that he was drunk and that there was nothing to make a fuss about. The incident hushed up, but there was a hard feeling about it. Later officers and gendarmes often came to our restaurant. Nothing of the kind happened again in the first year after Hungarians came to power, but every time Hungarian officers came to the restaurant this caused tension. There was no persecution of Jews in the first year.
A year later anti-Jewish laws 5 came in force. Jewish were forbidden to own stores, factories, shops or restaurants. They had to transfer their property to non-Jews without any compensation. Or the state expropriated their property without compensation. The older Szilagyi, owner of the Bercsenyi restaurant, died in the early 1930s and his two sons and daughter inherited the restaurant. In 1939, when the law depriving Jews of the right to own anything bringing income came in force, Szilagyi was obliged to transfer his restaurant to somebody called Kucsek who came from Hungary. It was simple: representatives of financial department came and ordered Szilagyi to give away keys from his storerooms and restaurant. The restaurant had huge stocks. There were big wine cellars. So, it was just a matter of giving keys to all his property: no compensation or agreements. Next day we came to work and Kucsek met us and said that we would receive everything from him. That simple. Then Kucsek announced that he only needed one Jew waiter. The others decided that I should stay since I was just a beginner and would not find work easily. However, I said that the waiter having 3 children should stay. I went to work in the Korona restaurant [Hungarian, meaning Crown], present-day ‘Verkhovina’.
For a few generations my father’s family lived in Subcarpathia 1, in Uzhgorod [700 km from Kiev]. My grandfather Bernat Roth was born in Uzhgorod in 1847. Grandmother Zali Riesenboch, was born in Uzhgorod in 1852. I don’t know what my grandfather did for a living. My father told me that they were very poor and my grandmother had to work as a dressmaker. She was very good at it. She worked at home and received her clients at home. She didn’t have any assistants and worked alone.
As far as I can imagine from what my father told me, Uzhgorod of his childhood and youth was very much like the Uzhgorod that I know. This was a multinational town and Jews constituted a large part of its population. Jews owned trade business and were craftsmen and wagon drivers were also Jews for the most part. There were few synagogues and a yeshivah in Uzhgorod. There were cheders, Jewish primary schools and a grammar school in the town. I can’t say that everyone was wealthy, but one wouldn’t have met a Jew beggars in the streets. There were no beggars in the town. There were poor families, but not poor to the extent when they had to beg for alms. The rich helped the poor. Every store owner had few less fortunate Jewish families to support.
Every Friday before lunch they came to a store owner and he gave them food and money for Sabbath. Charity was a matter of honor. Even families living from hand to mouth believed it was their duty to support the poor. Poor students of yeshivahs who came from other places had lunch with local families. Such students were called bukhers. Usually 7 families patronized one bukher and this student had lunch with another family every day. There was a Jewish soup kitchen for the poor in Uzhgorod. They even provided meals to the non-Jewish poor. There was a free Jewish hospital for the poor. There were Jewish doctors and Jewish patients in it. The diner and hospital were funded by the Jewish community of Uzhgorod. Few wealthiest Jews, factory and plant owners made their contributions to support them.
Every Friday before lunch they came to a store owner and he gave them food and money for Sabbath. Charity was a matter of honor. Even families living from hand to mouth believed it was their duty to support the poor. Poor students of yeshivahs who came from other places had lunch with local families. Such students were called bukhers. Usually 7 families patronized one bukher and this student had lunch with another family every day. There was a Jewish soup kitchen for the poor in Uzhgorod. They even provided meals to the non-Jewish poor. There was a free Jewish hospital for the poor. There were Jewish doctors and Jewish patients in it. The diner and hospital were funded by the Jewish community of Uzhgorod. Few wealthiest Jews, factory and plant owners made their contributions to support them.
My father and his bothers and sisters received Jewish education. The sons went to cheder and the girls had classes with a teacher at home. All of them finished 8-year Hungarian school. Both girls and boys attended the state school.
My father’s family were religious, but they were not fanatics. They were Neolog 2. They observed some Jewish traditions, but not all of them. They wore common clothes, men didn’t have beards or payes and women didn’t wear wigs. They did not go to the synagogue on Sabbath and didn’t follow kashrut. The only mandatory Jewish holiday for them was Yom Kippur and many often celebrated Pesach. [Editor’s note: In theory the Neolog stream was also supposed to observe all Jewish holidays and Kashrut just as the Orthodox one. In practice they were much less strict on such matters.] Some families didn’t celebrate other holidays.
After finishing school my father went to work as an apprentice waiter in Bercsenyi restaurant that belonged to the Jewish family called Szilagyi. It was a wealthy family.
The restaurant opened in the morning when visitors could have breakfast before going to work and closed at midnight. One year later my father began to work as a waiter. He earned well and received good tips too. My father went to study in Uzhgorod Trade School. He worked during day and attended classes in the evening.
All sisters married Jewish men and had traditional Jewish weddings. Of course, neolog weddings were a little different from more traditional Jewish weddings. [Orthodox] Neolog young people hardly ever sought help of shadkhanim, matchmakers. When they met they started seeing each other and when they decided it was time for them to live as a family they went to ask their parents’ blessing. Brides didn’t have their hair cut before chuppah as Jewish customs required. Married neolog women did not cover their heads or even more so wear wigs. The rest of a chuppah ritual was followed: bride and bridegroom’s mothers escorted a bride to under a chuppah and the bride and bridegroom’s fathers escorted a bridegroom.
A rabbi conducted the wedding ceremony and the newly weds were given a glass of wine that they had to sip taking turns. Then they were to throw the glass on the floor to break it. The glass was wrapped in a napkin before it was thrown. Wedding parties were also slightly different from traditional Jewish weddings. [Orthodox] There are separate tables for men and women at a traditional wedding. Even a wife is not supposed to sit beside her husband. Neologs were sitting together. When a bride danced with other men, except her husband, they were not supposed to hold her by her hand. A bride had a handkerchief in her hand that her partner held by its edge. Neolog pairs danced holding each other by the hand. Guests, men and women, danced together. Of course, paying tribute of respect to traditions there was traditional kosher food cooked for wedding parties. This was followed even if they didn’t follow kashrut at home.
A rabbi conducted the wedding ceremony and the newly weds were given a glass of wine that they had to sip taking turns. Then they were to throw the glass on the floor to break it. The glass was wrapped in a napkin before it was thrown. Wedding parties were also slightly different from traditional Jewish weddings. [Orthodox] There are separate tables for men and women at a traditional wedding. Even a wife is not supposed to sit beside her husband. Neologs were sitting together. When a bride danced with other men, except her husband, they were not supposed to hold her by her hand. A bride had a handkerchief in her hand that her partner held by its edge. Neolog pairs danced holding each other by the hand. Guests, men and women, danced together. Of course, paying tribute of respect to traditions there was traditional kosher food cooked for wedding parties. This was followed even if they didn’t follow kashrut at home.
There was no anti-Semitism in Subcarpathia during the period of Austria-Hungary or later, when Subcarpathia was annexed to Czechoslovakia in 1918. [First Czechoslovak Republic] 3. Many nationalities lived side by side through many generations and they respected the nationality and religion of their neighbors. During the period of Austro-Hungary the population commonly spoke Hungarian. [That was true for the western part of Subcarpathia only, including Uzhorod (Uzhgorod), where the majority of the local population was Hungarian. Towards the north and the east the most used language was Ruthenian.]
When Czechs came to power many older people failed to learn Czech and continued speaking Hungarian. The situation for Jews improved during the Czech rule. Czech authorities appreciated and supported Jews in every possible way. Jews were allowed to hold governmental positions. [Editor’s note: Jews were able to hold governmental positions previously, in the liberal Austro-Hungarian Monarchy too, that recognized the equality of all nationalities as well as of every religion. After the 1867 ‘Ausgleich’ Jews increasingly entered state bureaucracy and often made careers there, sometimes great ones (i.e. Vilmos Vazsonyi, Hungarian Minister of Justice). It is also true, however, that the governmental positions remained rather atypical for Jews all along until World War I. They were still more often to be found in key positions in the Hungarian economy as well as in the free professions.
When Czechs came to power many older people failed to learn Czech and continued speaking Hungarian. The situation for Jews improved during the Czech rule. Czech authorities appreciated and supported Jews in every possible way. Jews were allowed to hold governmental positions. [Editor’s note: Jews were able to hold governmental positions previously, in the liberal Austro-Hungarian Monarchy too, that recognized the equality of all nationalities as well as of every religion. After the 1867 ‘Ausgleich’ Jews increasingly entered state bureaucracy and often made careers there, sometimes great ones (i.e. Vilmos Vazsonyi, Hungarian Minister of Justice). It is also true, however, that the governmental positions remained rather atypical for Jews all along until World War I. They were still more often to be found in key positions in the Hungarian economy as well as in the free professions.